











































































































































































































































































































































































































































































* 















I 


4 














% 































KRAUSZ’S 


A B C OF MOTORING 



A VANDERBTT.T cup racer. 



















KRAUSZ’S 

K B C OF MOTORING 

A Manual of Practical Information for 
' Layman, Auto Novice and Motorist 

CONTAINING 

Dictionary of Terms, Types of Cars, Anatomy of the Automobile, 
Motors, Carbureter, Ignition, Cooling, Tires, Transmission, etc. 
Care of the Machine, Art of Driving, Troubles of the 
Road, Etiquette of Automobiling, Racing Rules and 
Statistics, Foreign Travel, Clubs, Manufactur¬ 
ers, Trade Papers, Speed Tables, and 

COMPLETE DIGEST OF 

MOTORING LAWS OF THIRTY-FIVE STATES 

AND NAMES OF THOSE HAVING NO LAWS 


BY 

SIGMUND KRAUSZ 

Author of “ Krausz's Complete Automobile Record," etc. 



CHICAGO 

Laird & Lee, Publishers 







LIBRARY Of CONGRESS 


Two Copies Received 

OCT 29 1906 




Copyright, 1906, 

By SIGMUND KRAUSZ, 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 


Entered at Stationers’s Hall, 
London, England 



c • 













I 

/?■$ 

Table of Contents 

PAGE 


List of Illustrations, 



vii 

Author’s Preface, ..... 



ix 

Introduction by John Farson, President American 

Auto- 


mobile Association, .... 



xi 

Dictionary of Automobile Terms, 



xiii 

Chapter 

1 . Genesis of the Automobile, . 



27 

II. Motor Car Types, 



31 

III. Anatomy of the Gasoline Automobile, 



39 

IV. The Gasoline Motor, 



43 

V. The Ignition, . . 



5 ° 

VI. Cooling of the Engine, 



55 

VII. The Carbureter. .... 



60 

VIII. The Transmission. 



67 

IX. The [Clutch, .... 



75 

X. The Change Speed Gear, 



79 

XI. The Reversing Gear, 



85 

XII. The Differential, .... 



87 

XIII. The Brake,. 



9 i 

XIV. The Muffler, .... 



94 

XV. The Steering Apparatus, 

. 


96 

XVI. The Tires,. 



99 

XVII. The Care of the Automobile, 



105 

XVIII. Troubles of the Road, . 



112 

XIX. The Art of Driving, 



119 

XX. The Manufacture of an Automobile 



126 

XXI. Automobile Etiquette, 

, 

. 

135 






PAGE 


Typical Automobile Bodies, . . . . . 139 

Automobile Laws of the United States, . . .157 

Racing Rules of the American Automobile Association, 171 
The Gordon Bennett Cup Rules, . . . .196 

The Vanderbilt Cup Rules, ..... 205 

The Chas. J. Glidden Touring Trophy—Deed of Gift, 211 
Frontier Regulations for Foreign Automobile Travel, . 213 

Race Statistics (International Events), . . .221 


The Gordon-Bennett, 221 ; The Vanderbilt, 221 ; 


The Florio, 222 ; The Grand Prix, 222 ; 

The Glidden Tour, 223 ; The Herkomer Tour, 223; 
Ormonde-Daytona, 224. 

Track and Race Records, ..... 227 

Clubs Affiliated with the Amer. Automobile Association, 231 
Foreign National Automobile Organizations, . . 233 

List of American Pleasure Cars and Foreign Cars repre¬ 
sented in America, ...... 235 

List of American Commercial Cars, .... 240 

List of Foreign Cars, ...... 241 

List of Automobile Tire Makers, .... 244 

List of Automobile Trade Papers, Domestic and Foreign, 245 
Average Speed Table, ...... 247 

Metric Weights and Measures, ..... 248 

Comparative Tables, ...... 248 

Foreign Currency Values. . . . . .251 


List of Illustrations 


PAGE 

Frontispiece 

Symington Steam Carriage, ..... 28 

Steam Artillery Carriage (Cugnot), . . . . 29 

A Modern Six-cylinder Gasoline Automobile, . . 33 

“ Steam Automobile, . . . . .37 

“ Electric Automobile, . . . . .37 

Anatomy of the Chassis, ...... 4 ° 

Plan of Motor Car, (Side Elevation), . . . • 4 2 

Four-cycle System, ....... 44 

Water-cooled Motor, ...... 46 

Air-cooled Motor, ....... 4^ 

Wiring for Two Sets of Batteries, .... 5 ° 

Four-cycle Wiring Diagram, . . . . 5 2 

Commutator, ........ 53 

Spark Plug, ........ 54 

Cooling System, ....... 5 ^ 

Carbureter. . . . . . .61 

“ Cross-section, . „ • . . • -64 

Cardan Shaft Transmission, . . . . . 68 

Chain Transmission, . . . . . 7 1 

Power Plant and Drive, . . . . . *73 

Cone Clutch, ........ 75 

Clutch in Operating Position, ..... 76 

Three-disk Metallic Clutch, ..... 77 

Interior Speed Gear Case, . . . . -79 

Gear Change Mechanism (Low Speed), . . .81 

“ «• “ (Highest Speed), . . 82 

Reverse Mechanism, ...... ^5 

vii 








Differential, .... 




PAGE 

. 88 

“ Knocked Down, 


, 


. 90 

Krebs Double Acting Brake, 


• - 


• 92 

Running Brake, 


• 


. 93 

Muffler, ..... 




• 95 

Solid Tire, .... 




100 

Round Double Tread Tire, 




IOI 

Flat Double Tread Tube Tire, . 




102 

Types Automobile Bodies, 




. 139 


Limousine (Pierce Great Arrow), 

King of Belgium (Thomas), 

Coupe (Cadillac), 

Opera Coach (Pierce Great Arrow), 

Touring Car (Locomobile), 

Racing Car (Locomobile), 

Collapsible Landaulet (Packard), 

Royal Victoria (Columbia), 

Buggy Type Runabout (Holsman), 
Four-cylinder Runabout (Ford), 

Babcock Electric Runabout, 

Doctor’s Runabout (Premier Air-cooled). 

Foreign Types — 

Mercedes (German), Renault (French), 

Napier (British), Panhard (French). 


viii 







AUTHOR’S PREFACE 

In adding the present volume of 
“Krausz’s A. B. C. of Motoring” to the 
ever-growing library of automobile 
books, it is my thorough belief that I am 
supplying a work which will prove a spe- 
;~i Ko 0 n to the layman and novice who 
. to acquire the first rudiments of au- 
^mobile knowledge, and at the same 
time be of practical use to technically 
experienced motorists. The first, I am 
sure, will find its principal advantage in 
the condensed and simple form of the 
technical chapters, which are given in the 
Vainest possible language, while the lat- 
t ^r, who are supposed to thoroughly 
know T the anatomy of the motor car, will 
find among the contents a plethora of 
miscellaneous information which, else¬ 
where, can be found only scattered in a 
multitude of publications that are not al¬ 
ways at hand, and to look for which 
means an expenditure of time and effort. 

The impetus to write the “A. B. C. of 
Motoring” has been given me by the vain 
search for an elementary book on auto- 
mobilism at the time when I first entered 
the ranks of motorists and could find 


IX 


x A. B. C. of Motoring 

nothing but works that may be of use to 
engineers and motor experts, but are too 
scientific, too voluminous, and written in 
terms too bewildering to the average lay¬ 
man and beginner to take the place of a 
first automobile reader. While many of 
these works are of much value after pre¬ 
liminary experience has been gained, 
they certainly cannot serve as initiatory 
steps to higher knowledge for men to 
whom the first principles of motoring 
and the mechanism of a car are as much 
of an enigma as the sphinx. 

With my own experience as a basis, I 
have started out, therefore, to fill in a 
hiatus in automobile literature, and a 
glance at the table of contents will con¬ 
vince the reader that I have tried to cover 
as much ground as is practical in a work 
of this nature. Whether my effort in the 
direction indicated has been a success, 
only a perusal of the contents can prove. 
For the sake of the reader and myself I 
earnestly hope so. 

The Author. 

^ Chicago, October, 1906. 


INTRODUCTION 

Before accepting the author’s invita¬ 
tion to write a few introductory lines to 
his work, I have, naturally, perused the 
chapters relating to the technical part 
of the book, as well as the other informa¬ 
tion contained therein. Having done 
this, I desire to say that I have found 
“Krausz’s A. B. C. of Motoring” to be 
exactly what may be inferred from its 
title: i. e. short, practical teaching for 
the man who wishes to acquire the rudi¬ 
ments of motoring in a way which does 
not necessitate previous technical knowl¬ 
edge or even familiarity with technical 
terms. In fact, it is written in popular 
language, such as the merest auto novice 
is bound to understand, and therein lies 
its advantage over other books of a simi¬ 
lar nature. 

The author does not pretend to write 
for engineers and motor experts, or to 
give complete instruction in automobile 
technics, but he tells the beginner all 
about the evolution of the motor car, its 
modern types with their advantages and 
disadvantages, how to handle and take 
care of an automobile, and he explains 


xi 


xii A. B. C. of Motoring 

the functions of the various parts of the 
mechanism in plain language without 
the technical frills which most writers 
on similar subjects affect. 

The statistical and other information 
which the book contains will no doubt 
be much appreciated by motorists in 
general as it has been compiled with a 
view of collecting in one volume matter 
of vital interest, to get at which automo¬ 
bile annuals, trade papers and other 
publications would have to be consulted. 

It seems to me, therefore, that this 
work ought to be valuable as a first step 
to further automobile knowledge, since 
it puts the novice on the right track in 
the preliminary information necessary 
before further advancing in the science 
of motoring. The book is a pleasant 
contrast to the pretentious volumes on 
the market which may appeal to experts 
and advanced students of motor engi¬ 
neering, but do not fill the bill for be¬ 
ginners. Withal it contains so much of 
real merit that I can recommend it 
heartily not only to those for whom it 
has been specially written, but to all in¬ 
terested in motoring. 

John Farson. 

Chicago, October, 1906. 


DICTIONARY OF AUTOMOBILE 
TERMS. 

Accelerator —Regulating device for 
engine speed. 

Accumulator —A secondary cell for 
storing of electric energy. 

Advance Sparking —A device for ex¬ 
ploding the charge in the cylinder, im¬ 
mediately before the piston starts down 
on the explosion stroke. 

Alternating Current —An electric cur¬ 
rent which rapidly changes from posi¬ 
tive to negative direction and back again. 

Ammeter or Amperemeter —Instru¬ 
ment for measuring the strength of an 
electric current. 

Ampere —A measure unit of electric 
energy. 

Armature —Part of a dynamo carry¬ 
ing around an iron frame, wire coils, 
the ends of which connect with the com¬ 
mutator. 

Artillery Wheel —The common form 
of wooden wheel used in motor cars. 

Axle, Live —An axle revolving in sta¬ 
tionary bearings which carry wheels. 

Back Fire —A premature explosion in 
an internal combustion cylinder, mostly 


XIII 


XIV 


A. B. C. of Motoring 

taking place when the sparking device 
is too far advanced at starting the engine. 

Ball Joint —See Universal Joint. 

Band Brake —A brake in which steel 
bands cause the retarding friction, either 
internally or externally, by expansion or 
contraction. 

Battery, Primary —A battery in which 
an electric current is generated. 

Battery, Secondary —A battery or de¬ 
vice in which electric energy is stored. 

Belt Drive —Transmission of motive 
power from motor to countershaft by 
means of belts. 

Bevel Wheel —A toothed wheel with 
its face cut at an angle. 

Bobbin— The induction coil supplying 
the high tension spark for ignition. 

Bore —The diameter of the cylinder 
chamber. 

Breech Piece—Van which closes the 
end of a cylindrical chamber. 

Brush Part of commutator used in 
collecting and distributing electric cur- 
rent from commutator. 

Cam —An irregular disk, mounted on 
a revolving shaft for the purpose of pro¬ 
ducing a changeable motion in another 
part of an engine. 


Dictionary xv 

Cam Shaft —A shaft or spindle carry¬ 
ing a cam. 

Carbide —The chemical from which 
acetylene for a generator is produced. 

Carbureter —The apparatus in which 
gasoline or other explosive fuel is vapor¬ 
ized and mixed with air to produce the 
charge for the cylinders. (See chapter on 
Carbureter.) 

Cardan Drive — Transmission of 
power from engine by means of a shaft, 
the ends of which move in universal or 
ball joints. 

Cardan Shaft —A shaft jointed with 
universal or ball joints. 

Chain Drive —Transmission of power 
from engine by means of chains. 

Change Speed Gear —The wheel or 
gear arrangement to produce the differ¬ 
ent speeds of an automobile. 

Chassis —The French term for the 
frame on wheels which carries the ma¬ 
chinery and other mechanism of a motor 
car. It includes all parts of the car ex¬ 
cept the coachwork. 

Chauffeur ( Fr . sho-fur )—French 
term for driver of an automobile. 

Circuit —The path of an electric cur¬ 
rent from one pole of a battery to the 
other. 


XVI 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


Clutch —The mechanism which con¬ 
nects the transmission system with the 
motor for the purpose of acquiring the 
driving power. 

Combustion Chamber —The space be¬ 
tween the piston and cylinder head in 
which the explosive charge is burned. 

Commutator —The part of the electric 
ignition apparatus which makes an elec¬ 
tric contact at definite periods to regu¬ 
late the time of firing the charge. It is 
mounted on the timing shaft. 

Compensating Gear —See Differential 
Gear. 

Compression —The reduced volume of 
the explosive charge between the piston 
and the cylinder head, after the compres¬ 
sion stroke. 

Compression Stroke — The second 
movement of the piston, in the four¬ 
cycle system, which compresses the 
charge. 

Condenser —A steam engine device 
for converting exhaust steam into water. 

Connecting Plug —See Switch Plug. 

Connecting Rod —The metal rod con¬ 
necting the piston with the crankshaft. 

Contact Breaker —The mechanism for 
making and breaking the low tension 
circuit of the ignition system. 


Dictionary 


XVII 


Cooling System —The method of cool¬ 
ing, by air or water, the over-heated 
walls of a cylinder. 

Countershaft —The transversal shaft, 
carrying the sprocket wheels, through 
which engine power is transmitted to the 
driving wheels. 

Coupling —A connection of two shafts 
in the same plane which allows of dis¬ 
connection. 

Crankshaft —The shaft in the engine 
base to which the piston rods are at¬ 
tached. 

Crypto Gear —See Planetary Gear. 

Cylinder —The part of the motor into 
which the explosive charge is admitted 
for developing the power. 

Densimeter —An instrument for meas¬ 
uring the specific gravity of liquids in 
comparison with water. 

Diff erential Gear —The mechanism 
which enables the two rear wheels to re¬ 
volve at different speeds when turning a 
corner. 

Dished Wheel —A wheel the hub of 
which is sunk below the plane of its rim. 

Distance or Radius Rod —The rod 
connecting the axle arms carrying the 
front wheels, also the rod which keeps 
the chains between the rear axle and 


XVIII 


A. B. C. of Motoring 

sprocket wheels on the countershaft at 
tension. Any rod used to keep a relative 
distance between parts. 

Distributor —A mechanism for carry¬ 
ing electricity to different rotating 
points. 

Dog Clutch —A clutch, the square- 
jawed projections of which fit into the 
hollow parts of the same. 

Dry Battery —See Battery, Primary. 

Dynamo —An apparatus for convert¬ 
ing steam, water or any other energy into 
electricity. 

Eccentric —Out of center—A device 
to convert rotary motion into up-and- 
down motion. 

Efficiency, Motor —The proportion of 
working force derived from the fuel 
heat. 

Electrolite —The acid or alkaline fluid 
in a cell which produces the electric cur¬ 
rent. 

E. M. F. —Abbreviation for “Electro 
Motive Force.” 

Epicyclic Gear —See Planetary Gear. 

Essence —The French term for gaso¬ 
line. 

Exhaust Stroke —The fourth piston 
stroke in the four-cycle system which ex¬ 
pels the burned charge. 


Dictionary 


XIX 


Expanding Clutch —A clutch in which 
friction is caused by internal steel bands 
being forced against the inside of an en¬ 
closing ring. 

Explosion Chamber —See Combustion 
Chamber. 

Fat Spark —A short but wide electric 
spark, caused by a strong current, in con¬ 
trast to a thin spark caused by electric 
weakness. 

Float —The hollow cylinder in the 
gasoline chamber of the carbureter which 
maintains the level of the fuel at a cer¬ 
tain point. 

Flywheel —The heavy wheel at the end 
of the crankshaft which is used to give 
momentum in starting, and forms part 
of the clutch. 

Four Cycle or Otto System —The four 
piston strokes of an internal combustion 
motor which perform the operation of 
rotating the crankshaft. (See chapter 
on the Gasoline Motor.) 

Frame —The part of an automobile 
which carries the machinery. The term 
is sometimes applied to the whole lower 
part of the car on which the body is 
mounted. 

Free Engine —An engine which can 
be disconnected from the transmission of 


XX 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


a vehicle, to which it is attached, by 
means of a clutch. 

Friction Clutch —A system of clutch 
in which the connection between the two 
revolving parts (male and female cone) 
is effected by friction. (See chapter on 
The Clutch.) 

Garage ( Fr . ga-razh )—A French 
term denoting a place where cars are 
stored, repaired or sold. 

Gear Case —The oil-tight metal case 
containing the speed change gear of a 
car. Any box enclosing gears. 

Generator —Any mechanical or chem¬ 
ical energy producing power. Generally 
applied, in motor parlance, to the ap¬ 
paratus supplying acetylene to the lamps. 

Governor —An apparatus for the reg¬ 
ulation of the motor speed in relation to 
the work performed. 

Gradometcr —An instrument for meas- 
ing the grade of elevations. 

Ground Wire —Part of the wiring sys¬ 
tem of a car which carries the current to 
some part of the chassis, thereby closing 
the circuit. 

Goggles —Spectacles for motorists. 

Half-speed Shaft —See Cam Shaft. 

High Tension Circuit —The induced 
current circulating between the two ter- 


Dictionary xxi 

minals of the electric coil through the 
spark plug. 

High Tension Wire —A wire for 
carrying strong electric currents. 

Honeycomb Radiator —A radiator, 
the pipe arrangement of which resem¬ 
bles a honeycomb. 

Hydrometer —See Densimeter. 

Ignition —The system of batteries and 
wiring by means of which the firing 
spark in the cylinder is produced. (See 
chapter on Ignition.) 

Internal Combustion Engine — See 
chapter on Gasoline Motor. 

Interrupter —An electric switch for 
the breaking of the low tension circuit. 

Jump Spark —The ignition spark be¬ 
tween the two closely placed wire ends 
of the sparking plug. 

Knocking —A characteristic noise in 
the engine caused by some defect. 

Lorry —A heavy, shallow-sided motor 
truck. 

Magneto —See chapter on Ignition. 

Manometer —Device for indicating 
water pressure in the cooling arrange¬ 
ment of an internal combustion motor. 

Misfire —Failure of regular firing in 
combustion chamber. 


XXII 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


Mixture —The explosive vapor result¬ 
ing from the mingling of gasoline or al¬ 
cohol particles with air. 

Mixture Chamber —The part of the 
carbureter in which the mixture of air 
and gasoline particles takes place. 

Muffler —The apparatus designed for 
reducing the noise of the explosions in 
the cylinders. Connects with exhaust 
pipe. (See chapter on Muffler.) 

Neutral Point —The point to which 
the speed lever is brought when letting 
the engine run free. 

Petrol —Term used in Great Britain 
for gasoline. 

Piston Ring —The flexible rings fitting 
into the grooves of the piston for secur¬ 
ing better lubrication and compression. 

Pneumatic Tires —Rubber tires inflat¬ 
able by air. 

Premature Ignition —The explosion of 
the charge in the combustion chamber 
before the piston has completed the com¬ 
pression stroke. 

Puncture —The damage caused to a 
tire by piercing it. 

Radiator —The part of the cooling sys¬ 
tem comprising the thin metal pipes 
through which the water circulates. (See 
chapter on Cooling.) 


Dictionary 


XXIII 


Rheostat—An apparatus for graduat¬ 
ing the strength of a current in a closed 
electrical circuit, 

Regulator— The lever of a steam car 
controlling the steam admitted to the 
cylinders. 

Reversing Gear —The mechanism by 
which a car is enabled to move back¬ 
ward. 

Runabout —A light car with seating 
capacity for two. 

Running Gear —The lower part of an 
automobile, comprising the frame, 
springs, axles, wheels, etc., without in¬ 
cluding any working part of the machin¬ 
ery. 

Short Circuit —A defect in the electric 
circuit which allows the current to es¬ 
cape into the car-frame, weakening or 
altogether stopping the firing spark. 

Silencer —Term for muffler in Great 
Britain. 

Skidding —The lateral slipping of the 
rear wheels, caused by wet or sandy con¬ 
dition of the road. 

Spark Plug —The insulated plug, con¬ 
necting with the combustion chamber in 
the cylinder, between the closely placed 
wire ends of which the jump spark plays. 

Spring Buffer —A device to eliminate 


xxiv A. B. C. of Motoring 

the bouncing of the car springs when go¬ 
ing over rough roads at high speed. 

Sprocket —A toothed wheel to receive 
a chain transmission. 

Steering Gear —The mechanism for 
giving a motor car the direction in 
which it is desired to travel. (See chap¬ 
ter on Steering Gear.) 

Storage Battery —See Accumulator. 

Stroke —The length which the piston 
can travel in the cylinder. 

Switch Plug —The plug used for turn¬ 
ing on and off the electric current of the 
ignition. 

Tank —The receptacle for the fuel or 
water in a motor car. 

Throttle —The small lever, generally 
placed on the steering column, which 
controls the supply of the mixture to the 
cylinders. 

Throttle Governor —An apparatus for 
automatically retarding the speed of a 
car when exceeding a certain limit. 

Timing Gear —The shaft and cam sys¬ 
tem for regulating the time of sparking 
in the cylinder and the regularity of suc¬ 
tion and exhaust valves. 

Transmission —The mechanical sys¬ 
tem for transmitting power from the en- 


XXV 


Dictionary 

gine to the driving wheels. (See chap¬ 
ter on Transmission.) 

Universal Joint —A joint which allows 
angular movement between two con¬ 
nected shafts which lie in a different 
plane or which are subject to different 
positions. 

Ventilator —The revolving fan behind 
the radiator which cools the pipes. 

Volt —The unit of measure in electric 
currents. 

Voltage —The strength of an electric 
current expressed in volt units. 

Voltmeter —See Ammeter. 

Water jacket —The metallic enclosure 
around the cylinders of the water-cooled 
gasoline motor which forms part of the 
cooling system. 

Wipe Spark —A low tension circuit 
spark generated at the moment when 
striker and plug inside the cylinder sep¬ 
arate. A primary sparking device prin¬ 
cipally used on stationary, gasoline and 
marine engines. 

Worm Gear —An endless screw mesh¬ 
ing with a section of a toothed wheel. 
(See chapter on Steering.) 


GO beyond the bounds of moderation 
is to outrage humanity . The greatness 
of the human soul is shown by knowing 
how to keep within proper hounds. So 
far from greatness consisting in going 
beyond its limits, it really consists in 
keeping within them. 

PASCAL 


(Adapted to Motoring) 


CHAPTER I 

GENESIS OF THE AUTOMOBILE. 

Horseless vehicles, such as the various 
forms of the present-day automobile, are 
not an invention of modern times. They 
are an evolution of ideas and experi¬ 
ments which originated as early as the 
Middle Ages and the germs of which 
may, perhaps, be sought for in the mazes 
of antiquity. 

So far as definite historical knowl¬ 
edge is concerned, Holland and Ger¬ 
many were the first countries where 
trials in this direction were made by 
using wind and spring power as motive 
forces, and in England a patent for 
“drawing carts without horses” was is¬ 
sued to Ramsay and Wildgoose as early 
as 1619. 

Most noted among other men credited 
with experiments of horseless carriages 
are the Italian, Giovanni Banca (first 
part of the 17th century), the English¬ 
men, Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), W. 
Symington (1764-1831) and Richard 
Trevithick (1771-1833), and the Ameri¬ 
cans Nathaniel Read and Oliver Evans 


27 


28 


A . B. C. of Motoring 


(end of the 18th century), all of whom 
worked with the principle of steam as 
motive power in their inventions. 



SYMINGTON STEAM CARRIAGE. 


It is the Frenchman, Nicholas Joseph 
Cugnot, however, who is generally re¬ 
garded as the real father of the steam au¬ 
tomobile. His first model was construct¬ 
ed in 1769 with the aid of government 
funds, but was improved by him in 1770, 
and, while not altogether practical and 
somewhat complicated, some of the ideas 
contained in it were used, in simplified 
form, until recent times, by later con¬ 
structors. 

Trevithick’s steam carriage (1802) 
was the first one in which power was 
transmitted by gears, and Griffiths built 
in 1821, for the first time, a steam vehicle 
























29 


Genesis of the Automobile 

with comfortable passenger accommo¬ 
dation and tubular boiler system. 

In 1824 an d 1825 W. H. James, Bur- 
stall and Hall, and David Gordon pat- 



STEAM ARTILLERY CARRIAGE (Cugnot). 


ented other systems (the latter a push- 
foot scheme) which were followed in 
1828 by Gurney’s and in 1831 by Sum¬ 
mers’ steam coaches. Walter Han¬ 
cock’s invention of an auto omnibus 
(1829-1833) with high pressure boiler 
was the most important step towards the 
perfection of the steam automobile. 

France, where since Cugnot’s inven¬ 
tion nothing had been accomplished in 
automombile improvements with the ex¬ 
ception of Pecqueur’s wagon (1828) 
which contains the germ of modern au¬ 
tomobile mechanism, was destined to be¬ 
come again the field of important efforts 
:n 1862 when Lenoir experimented with 
gas motors. Ravel, in 1870, followed 



3 o 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


along the same line, and in 1873 Amadee 
Bollee constructed a practical steam car 
for twelve passengers which he im¬ 
proved considerably in 1880. During 
1888 and 1889 other steam cars were suc¬ 
cessfully built by Dion & Bouton and by 
Serpollet. 

Efforts to employ electricity as motive 
power for automobiles were made a little 
in advance of internal combustion. Elec¬ 
tric tricycles were constructed in 1881 
by G. Trouve, and in 1882 by Ayrton, 
while a four-wheeled vehicle by Im- 
misch in i 888 was followed in 1893 an d 
1894 by Pouchain’s and Jeantaud’s elec¬ 
tric phaetons. 

It was a German, Gottlieb Daimler, 
who contemporaneously with his coun¬ 
tryman, Benz, secured in 1886 a patent 
on the internal combustion gasoline mo¬ 
tor which was destined to become the 
real prototype of the modern automobile, 
but to the two Frenchmen, Panhard and 
Levassor, is due the honor of having 
evolved this type to a degree which made 
possible the great development of the 
motor car industry at the beginning of 
the 20th century. 


CHAPTER II 

MOTOR CAR TYPES—THEIR ADVANTAGES 
AND DISADVANTAGES. 

The three principal motive powers 
employed in the construction of modern 
automobiles, in their present order of 
popularity, are Gasoline, Electricity and 
Steam. The cars o-f the first type also in¬ 
clude those propelled by alcohol and 
kerosene internal combustion engines. 
There is another car type, the “Com¬ 
pound,” in which a combination of inter¬ 
nal combustion and electricity is em¬ 
ployed in the way of utilizing a gasoline 
motor to drive a dynamo, but its use is 
too limited to justify going into details. 

Of the three types first mentioned the 
GASOLINE CAR is the most popular. 
Its advantages are economy of mainten¬ 
ance, simplicity of construction, capabil¬ 
ity of great speed, quick starting possi¬ 
bility, light weight, almost unlimited 
radius of action and comparative cheap¬ 
ness of initial cost. Its disadvantages 
are dirt, noise, odor and small range of 
engine flexibility, but improvements 
have of late been so radical as to promise 
considerable lessening of these nuisances. 


31 


32 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


The Gasoline Car derives its power 
from direct consumption of the fuel, and 
works most economically and satisfactor¬ 
ily at constant speed. The various 
speeds, which generally range from two 
to four, are obtained by intermediary 
gears which are arranged in a certain 
ratio to each other, and control the re¬ 
volutions of the road wheels. In chain- 
driven cars the transmission of power 
from the engine to the wheels takes 
place through the crank-shaft, counter¬ 
shaft, chains and sprockets. In shaft 
or cardan-driven machines the power is 
transmitted through the gear case to a 
jointed shaft in the center of the car con¬ 
necting directly with the rear axle where 
it is communicated to a large bevel wheel. 

The tendency in Gasoline Cars lately 
has been for direct drive on the high 
speed, for chain drive in heavy touring 
and racing cars, and shaft drive for 
lighter models. Vertical position of en¬ 
gine is preferred to the horizontal and 
the placing of the motor in front under 
the hood is quite generally adopted on 
account of greater accessibility. 

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES de¬ 
rive their motive power from electric 
currents either stored or generated in the 


MODERN SIX-CYLINDER GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE (Ford). 




























































Motor Car Types 


35 


vehicle itself, and an electric motor dif¬ 
fers from a dynamo only in so far as it 
is used to create motive power from elec¬ 
tricity, while the latter transforms mo¬ 
tive power into electric currents. 

The advantages of an Electric Car are 
silent running, absence of shocks, bad 
odors, heat and delays in starting, and 
absolute control of speed without the use 
of complicated gears. Its disadvantages 
consist of heavy weight, difficulty of pro¬ 
curing motive power, sensitiveness of 
batteries against road vibrations, neces¬ 
sity of considerable knowledge and ex¬ 
perience in proper handling, short rad¬ 
ius of action and constantly increasing 
proportion of dead weight as the batter¬ 
ies are exhausted in running. 

In generating an electric current in 
the car, it can be used either directly 
from the dynamo or it may be stored in 
the battery and supplied from there as 
needed. The latter arrangement is pre¬ 
ferable, but there are certain difficulties 
which have, as yet, not been overcome, 
and for that reason the electric vehicle 
with storage battery is in more general 
use. Stored electricity for supplying 
the motor of an Electric Automobile is 
carried in storage batteries which must 
be re-charged after exhaustion, and it is 


36 A. B. C. of Motoring 

principally the limitation as to places 
where motive power may be secured 
which is the main reason that the use of 
Electric Vehicles is confined to larger 
cities. 

STEAM CARS, in spite of the prior¬ 
ity of motive power, have experienced a 
less radical evolution than gasoline auto¬ 
mobiles, and their use is rather limited. 
The special advantages which may be 
claimed for this type are smoothness of 
running, capability of great speed, ab¬ 
sence of noise and odor, reliability of 
system and simplicity of transmission. 
Its disadvantages may be enumerated as 
impossibility of quick start, danger of 
explosion, especially in collisions, atten¬ 
tion required, large consumption of fuel 
and necessity of frequent water supply 
which often cannot be found suitable as 
to its chemical composition. 

The types of Steam Cars are, however, 
so varied that a statement of their disad¬ 
vantages must be qualified according to 
circumstances. America and France 
have so far produced the most successful 
steam cars. In England they have found 
a limited number of adherents, while 
Germany and other European countries 
have, as yet, refrained from giving them 
a place in their motor industry. 



Modern Steam Automobile (White). 
Modern Electric Automobile (Columbia). 















CHAPTER III 

ANATOMY OF THE GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE. 

A motor car may be properly divided 
in two parts, the chassis and the body. 
The chassis consists of the car frame to 
which is attached the running gear, and 
which carries the mechanism, while the 
body comprises the coach work. 

Beginning with the front of the car, 
the chassis contains the turning crank 
which sets the car in motion, the radia¬ 
tor through which the cooling water cir¬ 
culates, the ventilator to assist in the 
cooling, the water-pipes leading to and 
from the motor, the engine and the fly¬ 
wheel. These parts with their minor at¬ 
tachments for ignition and lubricating 
form the engine group proper. 

The principal parts of the engine it¬ 
self, which is bolted on an oil-tight base 
or crank case, comprise the waterjacket, 
the cylinders with pistons, piston rings, 
piston rod and valves, crankshaft, cam¬ 
shaft and carbureter. 

Following the engine comes the trans¬ 
mission. This consists of the clutch, fit¬ 
ted into the flywheel, the driving shaft, 


39 



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Anatomy of Gasoline Automobile 41 

the gear case, containing the speed 
change gear, the transversal countershaft 
(in chain-driven cars) or the cardan- 
shaft (in shaft-driven cars), chains and 
differential or compensating gear. 

To the running gear belong the springs, 
axles, wheels and brakes. 

The chassis carries further the steering 
device and levers, the fuel tank, the elec¬ 
tric apparatus, the muffler, running 
board and mudguards. 

The supporting frame, to which all 
these parts are attached, may be made of 
angular steel, tubular steel, pressed chan¬ 
nel steel, wood or armored wood. 

The body or coachwork comprises the 
car floor, the dashboard, the front seats, 
the rear seats (tonneau), hood and sta¬ 
tionary hampers. 

Other adjuncts of a motor car, such 
as generator, toolbox, lamps, horn, tops, 
etc., are attached to various convenient 
parts of chassis or body . 





































































CHAPTER IV 
the gasoline motor 

The system almost exclusively em¬ 
ployed in the Gasoline or Internal Com¬ 
bustion Engine is the Four-Cycle, other¬ 
wise called the Otto system. As indi¬ 
cated by its first name, which is mostly 
used in America, this cycle consists of 
four piston strokes. The strokes are per¬ 
formed in the interior of the cylinders, 
which are the rear seat of the engine’s 
working energy, and are called in rota¬ 
tion of their action as follows: 

Suction Stroke (forward) —which 
draws the explosive vapor from the mix¬ 
ture chamber of the carbureter into the 
cylinder. 

Compression Stroke (backward) — 
which compresses the mixture between 
the piston top and cylinder head. 

Working Stroke (forward)—which 
is caused by the ignition and consequent 
expansion of -the charge. 

Exhaust Stroke (backward)—which 
forces the burned gases out of the com¬ 
bustion chamber, leaving again a vacu¬ 
um for the first or Suction Stroke. 


43 




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The Gasoline Motor 45 

Suction and exhaust take place by 
means of valves which are operated 
either automatically or mechanically. 
The latter method is the more reliable 
and is much to be preferred. It depends 
for motion on the half-speed camshaft 
in the engine base. 

The firing of the charge, which has to 
be properly timed, is effected by an elec¬ 
tric spark in the cylinder, created by 
various systems of ignition. The electric 
force for this purpose may be gained 
either by a magneto apparatus worked by 
the motor, or by a stored current from 
dry cell batteries or accumulators. 

Since there is only one working stroke 
in the two forward and two backward 
strokes which cause the two revolutions 
of the crankshaft, a heavy flywheel 
which by its momentum absorbs some 
power from the motor, is attached to 
the latter at the end of the crank¬ 
shaft for the purpose of starting the 
engine by hand and keeping it going 
during the periods of the cycle when 
no fresh impulse is given. This fly¬ 
wheel differs in weight with the size 
of the car and cubic measurement of the 
compression chamber in the cylinder. 

The mixture which produces the real 


4 6 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


motive power by its explosion is the result 
of a proportionate mingling of air with 
the gasoline vapors in the mixture cham¬ 
ber of the carbureter, from where it is 
drawn into the cylinder, by means of a 
tube and the suction valve. Its supply is 
regulated by a throttle generally placed 
on the steering wheel. The burned gases 



WATER-COOLED MOTOR (Oldsmobile ). 


are expelled through the exhaust valve 
into a pipe leading to the muffler, (an 
apparatus for silencing the sound of the 
explosions) and thence into space. 

The cylinder walls, which absorb ex¬ 
cessive heat from the constant explosions, 

















The Gasoline Motor 47 

are cooled by a circulating stream of 
water between them and an outer me¬ 
tallic jacket. Circulation is effected 
either by means of a mechanically ope¬ 
rated pump which forces the water 
through the cooling raditor or by a nat¬ 
ural gravity system called the thermo¬ 
syphon system. The cylinder heads of a 
modern engine are generally cast in one 
piece with the cylinders, the latter either 
being arranged singly or in pairs, each 
system having its advantages and adher¬ 
ents, while the lower part of the casting 
is tightly screwed to the engine base. In 
case of an air-cooled motor the water 
jacket is naturally done away with, as the 
cooling is then effected by means of radi¬ 
ating flanges or pins. 

The crankshaft in the engine base, 
which is partly filled with oil for auto¬ 
matic lubrication, is connected with the 
pistons by means of piston rods, and im¬ 
parts the rotary motion which it receives 
from that source to the flywheel, the 
clutch, driving shaft and running gear 
to the road wheels. By means of cam¬ 
shafts and meshing gears it also operates 
various smaller parts of the engine, such 
as valves, oil and water pumps, etc. 

Regarding the general design of gaso- 


48 A. B. C , of Motoring 

line motors vertical form is by far the 
most popular. Horizontal motors are, 
however, still in limited use, while the 
number of inclined ones, except in motor 
cycles, is infinitesimally small. Motors 
are generally classified by the number of 
cylinders, and it is conceded that with 



AIR-COOLED MOTOR (Orient). 


the four and six-cylinder engine, in¬ 
creased reliability and efficiency go hand 
in hand. 

An exception to the Four-Cycle system 
in general use must he noted in the Two- 
Cycle motor which is used by a few auto- 




The Gasoline Motor 


49 


mobile constructors. This system per¬ 
forms in two strokes the functions of 
suction, compression, combustion and 
expulsion, but its principle entails a loss 
of energy and an increased use of fuel 
which operate against its wide adoption 
for motor cars until radical improve¬ 
ments will make it more practical. 


CHAPTER V. 

THE IGNITION. 

The proper installation and working 
of the ignition apparatus in connection 
with the internal combustion motor is of 



the greatest importance, as a lack of care 
in this regard is invariably followed by 


50 
























The Ignition 51 

serious trouble in the running of an auto¬ 
mobile. 

There are several systems of ignition 
in use, such as electric, tube and incan¬ 
descent, but electricity has nearly sup¬ 
planted all other methods. 

In this system the spark for the firing 
of the charge in the cylinder can be cre¬ 
ated either by means of a constant electric 
current (produced by a so-called pri¬ 
mary element, generally “dry cells,” or 
by a secondary element, an “accumula¬ 
tor,” storing up energy from a dynamo) 
or through a magneto apparatus worked 
by the motor itself. 

The first method is called the High 
Tension System, and its mechanism is 
made up of the battery, the coil, the 
switch, the connection plug, the commu¬ 
tator and the spark plug. There is 
a difference, however, between the 
efficiency of a Dry Battery and an Ac¬ 
cumulator. The strength of the first 
gradually declines with use, and the bat¬ 
tery has to be discarded and renewed 
after its exhaustion, while the accumula¬ 
tor is always capable of being cheaply 
re-charged. On the other hand the 
radius of action of the latter, without re¬ 
charge, is not nearly so large as that of 
the Dry Battery. 


52 A. B. C. of Motoring 

The Magneto apparatus consists of a 
steel magnet which, unlike that of a 
dynamo, is permanently magnetized, and 
depends for its electric current on break¬ 
ing or momentarily diverting the force 
lines between the two poles of the magnet 
and an armature wound with insulated 
wire coils. 

While there is practically no wiring 
in the Magneto ignition, there are var- 



FOUR-CYCLE WIRING DIAGRAM (Oldsmobile). 


ious ways of wiring up a high tension 
system, but in any case it is of importance 
that the wires should be well insulated, 
(stranded and tinned wire is preferable 
on account of its greater flexibility and 

















53 


The Ignition 

because it carries the current more relia¬ 
bly) and that both, high and low tension 
circuits are complete. To produce a 
good spark the wiring must be done with 
great care. The system of doing this 
depends on the coil, and this again on 
the commutator, while in the multiple 



cylinder engine the angles at which the 
cranks are set have also to be taken in 
consideration if the spark plugs are to 
fire the charge at the proper moment of 
the revolution. 



54 d. B. C. of Motoring 

The course of the current forms a cir¬ 
cuit from the battery to the spark plugs 
and varies in its passage through the 
different parts of the electric arrange¬ 
ment according to the system of ignition 



employed. The fact that the relative 
position of the parts of an ignition system 
vary on different motor cars has no effect 
whatever on the principle. 






























CHAPTER VI. 

COOLING OF THE ENGINE. 

The rapid and constant explosions of 
the gas mixture in the cylinders of a 
working internal combustion engine, 
create such excessive heating of the com- 
bustion chamber walls that, without the 
employment of some cooling device, the 
running of the motor, even for a short 
time, would be a matter of impossibility. 

In modern automobiles two distinct 
systems of cooling are used, each of 
which has its adherents. They are air 
and water-cooling. Of the two, the lat¬ 
ter is by far more in popular favor and 
is, with one notable English exception 
(the Lancaster), exclusively used by 
European motor car manufacturers who 
deem air-cooling only practicable in 
small motor cycle engines. In America, 
however, air-cooling has been taken up 
seriously, and the improvements along 
this line have been such that the number 
of manufacturers who turn out air-cooled 
cars has considerably increased in the last 
few years. It has to be admitted, too, 
that, within a certain limit of horse 


55 


56 A. B. C. of Motoring 

power, these machines have proved fairly 
successful on the road. 

The fact, however, that air-cooled en¬ 
gines, even in America, form only a 
small percentage as compared with 
water-cooled motors, is in itself proof 



enough, that, for the present at least, 
their advantages are far outweighed by 
the latter. There is no doubt whatever 
that water-cooling is more efficient, and 
the only arguments that may be brought 
against this system by its opponents are 
greater weight of the engine, more elab¬ 
orate piping and the possibility of the 
cooling water freezing in a rigorous 
climate. 























Cooling of the Engine 57 

, Air-cooling j s effected by means of 
integrally cast or attached flanges, pins 
and other protuberances tending to in¬ 
crease the outer heat-radiating surface 
of the cylinders, or by devices which 
suck and circulate a stream of cool air 
around the combustion chambers. The 
difference between the several methods 
in use consists principally in variation 
of design. Frequently, and notably in 
cars of larger horse power, a revolving 
fan, in close proximity to the cylinders, 
is employed for the purpose of greater 
cooling efficiency. 

In the water-cooling system a so-called 
water jacket (generally cast integrally 
with the cylinders) encircles the combus¬ 
tion chambers, the space between the two 
being filled by water which is circulated, 
either by action of natural gravity, called 
thermo-syphon cooling, or by mechan¬ 
ically working force pumps. 

Thermo-syphon cooling is the simpler 
of the two methods, but is not quite so 
reliable and efficient as the pump feed. 
It is automatic and is based on the well- 
known difference in the specific gravity 
of hot and cold water. In its mechanical 
arrangement the water tank is placed 
above the jacket, sending the cold water 


58 A. B. C. of Motoring 

first to the bottom of the latter. After 
absorbing considerable heat from the 
cylinders, the water rises from there to 
the top, and flowing out through the 
radiator emerges again into the tank, 
having been cooled in its course through 
the maze of thin metal pipes. 

Experience has shown, however, that 
the cooling effect of the thermo-syphon 
system is not quite sufficient for the 
greatest working efficiency of the motor, 
as the temperature difference between 
the warm and cold water cannot be made 
considerable enough to effect a perfectly 
satisfactory circulation and consequent 
cooling. It has, therefore, been aban¬ 
doned by many manufacturers, and the 
force pump system is coming in more 
general use for cooling purposes. 

In this system the water circulation 
is made absolutely reliable, as the pump, 
which is driven by the motor, forces the 
water through its course which is the 
same as in the thermo-syphon cooling, 
i. e.: from the tank to the bottom of the 
water jacket, the top, the radiator and 
back to the tank. 

The principal part of the water-cool¬ 
ing apparatus is the radiator which con¬ 
sists of a number of closely arranged thin 


59 


Cooling of the Engine 

metal pipes generally placed in front of 
the motor and car in order to get the 
benefit of the cool air draft caused by the 
motion of the vehicle. The length of 
these thin pipes is a factor in the cooling 
of the water that circulates through them, 
which is, moreover, augmented by a 
powerful ventilating fan in the rear of 
the radiator. 

Against the emergency of the water 
freezing in tank and radiator during 
cold weather the use of anti-freezing 
solutions is recommended, in the choice 
of which, however, caution ought to be 
exercised, as some of them have a detri¬ 
mental chemical effect on the engine 
parts touched by the water. Unless an 
effective harmless solution is used, it is 
more advisable to drain the water, dur¬ 
ing long stops in cold weather, by means 
of the cock at the lowest point of the 
cooling apparatus which can easily be 
filled again through the opening at the 
highest elevation of it. 

It is, perhaps, needless to say that in 
the course of running the car, the water 
supply diminishes gradually by evapora¬ 
tion and must therefore be replenished 
from time to time. 


CHAPTER VII. 

THE CARBURETER. 

The carbureter is the apparatus in 
which, by vaporizing gasoline and min¬ 
gling these vapors in right proportions 
with warm air, the highly explosive 
gaseous mixture is produced, which, on 
being introduced into the combustion 
chamber and ignited therein by an elec¬ 
tric spark, furnishes the motive power 
for the engine. 

This apparatus is of great importance 
in the anatomy of a motor car, since on 
its proper working depend, to a large 
extent, the control of the regularity of 
the engine’s running and the speed of the 
vehicle. It is connected with the cylin¬ 
ders by means of the inlet pipes, and is 
always placed in close proximity to the 
motor in a position where the air intro¬ 
duced in the mixture chamber can be 
warmed before entering it. 

There are too many distinct types of 
carbureters employed in motor cars to 
make it possible to describe them indi¬ 
vidually within the scope of this book, 
and, therefore, special attention can be 
60 


The Carbureter 


61 


paid only to the most popular type in 
use at present. 

Carbureters can be divided in five 
classes according to the principles em- 



GERMAN SPRAY CARBURETER. 


ployed, and may be enumerated and 
named as the “Wick,” the “Bubbling,” 





























































62 A. B. C. of Motoring 

the “Surface,” the “Distributing” and 
the “Float-feed” carbureters. The latter 
is the most widely used in America, and 
its principal types are the “Jet” and 
“Spray” form. The other classes are 
comparatively unknown or obsolete in 
connection with modern automobile con¬ 
struction in the United States and re¬ 
garding them the following statements 
will suffice: 

In the Wick Carbureter, a soft cotton 
wick, through which air is drawn by the 
suction of the motor, is saturated with 
gasoline and forms the evaporating sur¬ 
face for the mixture, which is diluted by 
an additional current of pure air. 

In the Surface Carbureter, the inlet 
pipe, by its suction, draws the air over 
the surface of the gasoline, where it gets 
strongly mixed with the vapors, after 
which, a further dilution with air, makes 
it explosive in the desired degree. 

The Bubbling Carbureter differs from 
the Surface type only in that the air is 
caused to bubble through the gasoline 
instead of passing over its surface. 

The Distributing Carbureter is the 
least known type. Its results are most 
satisfactory, but the apparatus is much 


The Carbureter 


63 


complicated. It is a system of measured 
fuel supply, which assures a fairly cor¬ 
rect mixture at the different speeds, and 
makes possible the slowest speeds at¬ 
tained so far by internal combustion 
motors. 

The Float-feed Carbureter class con¬ 
tains the largest number of different 
types, although there is no difference 
whatever in the basic principle of each, 
which is to atomize the gasoline so finely 
as to offer the greatest surface to the air 
admitted, and to hold the gasoline par¬ 
ticles suspended in the air-current suffi¬ 
ciently long to transform them into the 
explosive gas. 

The principal parts of this form of 
carbureter are the gasoline receptacle, 
for the reception of the fluid from the 
fuel tank, and the mixture chamber 
where the transformation of the gasoline 
into gas takes place. 

The gasoline receptacle contains a thin 
metal float in the shape of a light, hollow 
cylinder through the center of which 
runs a needle valve spindle, pointed at 
its lower end, which, under normal con¬ 
ditions, keeps the gasoline supply pipe 
closed, but opens it as soon as the fluid 


64 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


in the receptacle sinks below its ordinary 
level. This control is accomplished by 
means of a suitable arrangement of 
levers, springs, etc., and has for its object 
the maintenance of a constant level at a 
certain point. 



The mixture chamber contains a jet 
or spraying nipple, which, at its lower 
end, communicates by means of a fine 
hole with the bottom of the gasoline re- 




























The Carbureter 


65 

ceptacle. The small amount of fluid 
thus supplied to the spraying nipple 
naturally maintains the same level as 
that in the larger receptacle, and should 
be about one-sixteenth inch below the 
mouth of the jet or sprayer. 

The atomizing process takes place 
through the sucking action of the cylin¬ 
der pistons, which, through the inlet 
pipe, creates a vacuum above the open¬ 
ing of the nipple and—the distance being 
small—lifts the gasoline particles there¬ 
from in the shape of a fine spray. This 
spray meets another current of induced 
air which vaporizes it immediately and 
carries the now suitably diluted gaseous 
mixture to the combustion chamber of 
the cylinder where it is exploded. 

The carbureter is so arranged that it 
may be flushed at any time for the pur¬ 
pose of starting the motor, or relieved 
of any surplus quantity of gasoline. 

The beginner will do well, after hav¬ 
ing become theoretically acquainted with 
the general function of a carbureter, to 
carefully study the individual carbureter 
of his car by taking it apart and assem¬ 
bling it again. This will give him know¬ 
ledge of its single parts, and enable him 


66 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


to easier locate the troubles to which 
this delicate apparatus is, perhaps, more 
subject than any other part of an automo¬ 
bile. 


CHAPTER VIII. 

THE TRANSMISSION. 

The term “Transmission” is ambig¬ 
uously used by most motorists. It is 
variously applied to different parts of 
the mechanism for transferring the en¬ 
gine power to the road wheels, such as 
the universal or cardan drive shaft, the 
chain and sprocket wheels, the change 
gear, etc. The application of the term 
in its true meaning, however, includes 
the whole mechanical apparatus of 
transmitting the power, developed by 
the motor, to the driving wheels by 
means of shafts, gears, pinions, bevel 
wheels, chains, friction plates, etc., as 
the special system of car construction 
may demand. 

The disposition and general mechan¬ 
ical arrangement of the transmission 
depends on the general lines on which 
a motor car is built, but since there are 
too many systems in use, the two prin¬ 
cipal types only shall be gone into in 
order to give the novice a general idea 
as to the working of the mechanism. 

Before doing this, a few preliminary 

67 



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TRANSMISSION. 


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The T ra n s m is si on 


69 


remarks, which will materially aid in 
the understanding of the subject, will 
not prove without some value. 

It is obvious that an automobile must 
be able to be driven at various speeds, 
and that a uniform rate only would be 
impracticable. Electric and even steam 
motors possess sufficient innate elasticity 
to accomplish this without the aid of a 
speed changing device, although the lat¬ 
ter is often assisted by such an arrange¬ 
ment. In the gasoline engine, however, 
a change of speed can only be effected by 
modifying its power, a process which 
materially reduces its efficiency. Elec¬ 
tric and steam motors also have the 
advantage of being able to run back¬ 
wards by the simple manipulation of a 
controller or valve gear, while the 
gasoline engine is incapable of reverse 
motion. It is essential, therefore, to 
provide in connection with the latter a 
transmission which includes a change 
gear and a mechanical device for revers- 
ing. 

Since the starting of the gasoline 
motor, whether by hand or otherwise, 
can only be effected when it is dis¬ 
engaged from the transmission mechan¬ 
ism, it is further necessary to have an 


7o 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


apparatus for connecting and discon¬ 
necting the power at will. This appara¬ 
tus, called the Clutch or Friction Clutch, 
also comes in use when an abrupt stop¬ 
ping of the car is imperative, as the 
application of the brakes can only be 
effective if the propelling motion is 
stopped. The gasoline engine, being 
incapable of reverse action, it follows, 
that in order to arrest the forward move¬ 
ment of the car, the motor has to be 
thrown out of gear, or, in other words, 
disconnected from the driving mechan¬ 
ism. The engine should also be discon¬ 
nected when going on a down-grade at 
great speed on the gravitation of the car, 
as otherwise the speed of the wheel 
revolutions would be retarded by the 
motor at the risk of damaging the mech¬ 
anism. 

Another point which has to be taken 
in consideration in the transmission is the 
independence of the two rear or driving 
wheels from each other in regard to turn¬ 
ing corners. This independence is 
achieved by means of the differential 
gear which is spoken of under a separate 
heading. 

The two principal systems of trans¬ 
mission mentioned above are the Chain 


SPROCKET 








































7 2 A. B. C. of Motoring 

and the Universal Driving or Cardan 
Shaft Transmission. There is no differ¬ 
ence between the two so far as the 
mechanical arrangement between the 
motor proper and the case containing 
the change speed gears is concerned. 
This arrangement in the car of the most 
popular type, having the engine placed 
in front, is the following in both systems: 

The end of the motor crank-shaft bears 
the heavy fly-wheel, within which, the 
friction clutch is arranged. The clutch 
is connected, in direct line, by a shaft 
with the change speed gear in its case 
and, through it, with the part of the 
transmission mechanism where the differ¬ 
ence between the two systems mentioned 
begins. 

In the chain system, the power is trans- 
ferred here to a transversal counter¬ 
shaft, within the gear case, which is 
driven by a bevel gear mounted on the 
differential box. The counter-shaft ter¬ 
minates at both ends in strongly attached 
sprockets from where endless chains 
transmit the power to larger chain- 
wheels which are securely bolted to the 
driving wheds set on a solid stationary 
axle. 1 he chain transmission is princi¬ 
pally used on the heavy touring and 
racing cars. 6 


C Connecting Rod. H Universal Coupling. M Housing enclosing Driving Gear: 

D Piston with Rings. I Gear-change Mechanism. and Differential Mechanism. 

E Cylinder. J Universal Joint. N Drive Wheel 



/ 






















































































74 A. B. C. of Motoring 

In the cardan system, the secondary 
shaft from the gear case is attached to a 
fork which is connected by means of a 
universal joint to the longitudinally 
placed driving shaft. The other end of 
this shaft is connected with a second fork 
and universal joint mounted on the bevel 
wheel shaft. This double universal con¬ 
nection becomes necessary in order to 
secure more flexibility, and on account 
of the motion caused by the springs 
which attach the chassis to the axle. 
The large bevel wheel finds its place on 
the outside of the differential box, and 
the whole is enclosed in a casing with 
extensions which form the bearings for 
the live or rotating axle on which the 
driving wheels run. 


CHAPTER IX. 

THE CLUTCH. 

The clutch in an automobile, being 
most generally placed behind the motor, 
between the crank-shaft and the system 
of transmission, may be described as a 
mechanical arrangement for temporarily 
connecting the engine or crank-shaft 
with the driving shaft, which lie in the 
same plane, in a manner that they may 
be driven together. 

Clutches, in 
general, are of 
too many types to 
even attempt an 
elaboration, and 
since it is the 
Friction Clutch 
system which is 
most widely used 
i n connection 
with automobiles, 
the beginner can 
profit most by 
concentrating his 
first attention on 
them. Even in 
this class there are a number of varieties, 



CONE CLUTCH 


7 5 











Clutch in Operating Position. Foot Pedals, Levers and 
Anti Gear Stripping Device (Thomas). 




















































The Clutch 


77 


chief among which are Cone Friction, 
Contracting or External Band, Disk, 
Internal Expanding Ring and Coil 
clutches, but whatever the mechanical 
means employed in the various types 
may be, the name indicates that the con¬ 
nection between motor and transmission 
system, effected by them, has to be made 
by means of friction. 

By far the most popular type of the 
friction clutch system is the Cone 



Clutch. In this method, the flywheel of 
the engine is almost invariably employed 
as part of the mechanism. Its hub shell, 
which forms the so-called female part 
of the clutch, is made to receive a leather¬ 
faced metal cone (the male part) which 














7 8 


A. B. G. of Motoring 


is attached to the driving shaft and is 
normally held in position by the pressure 
of powerful springs. It is by means of 
this male cone which, through a foot 
pedal, can be made to engage and disen¬ 
gage the female part of the clutch at will, 
that connections and disconnections be¬ 
tween the engine and driving shaft are 
effected. 

The working of the clutch is exceed¬ 
ingly simple. When the leather-faced 
cone is forced into the shell of the fly¬ 
wheel hub by the mechanical means 
provided, the contact becomes so close 
that it takes up the rotation of the crank¬ 
shaft and flywheel and communicates it 
to the driving shaft to which it is 
attached. The latter, on its part, trans¬ 
mits the power again to the general trans¬ 
mission system. 


CHAPTER X. 

THE CHANGE SPEED GEAR. 

Under the heading “Transmission,” 
the reasons have shortly been stated why 
a gasoline engine has to be provided with 
mechanical devices for changing the 



INTERIOR OF SPEED GEAR CASE (Pierce Great Arrow) 


speed of a car. These devices are of 
many varieties, more or less simple or 
complicated, but the mechanical prin¬ 
ciples by which the object of changing 
speed may be achieved are but few in 
number. They may be broadly classified 
in four distinct methods of action, the 
most practical and widely used of which 


79 















80 A. B. C. of Motoring 

is the so-called Sliding Gear, the earliest 
form of which constitutes the noted 
original Panhard & Levassor speed 
change gear which is now employed, 
with many modifications, by the best 
motor car manufacturers. 

As the name indicates, the principle 
of this gear consists of obtaining the 
speed changes by sliding gear wheels of 
various diameter, either on a sleeve or 
separately, in and out of mesh. 

Another method is the Expanding 
Clutch Gear in which either expanding, 
friction or dog clutches act on constantly 
meshing gear wheels. While not as 
popular as the sliding gear, this principle 
is employed by some good manufac¬ 
turers, notably in a well-known French 
make. 

The Planetary or Epicyclic Gear 
varies much in arrangement, but the 
general principle consists of the speed 
changes being obtained by the clutching 
and releasing of the working parts, thus 
making them active or stationary. The 
arrangement of the gear wheels in this 
method may be likened to the motion of 
the sun and planets, and the system 
derives its name from this resemblance. 

The fourth method of mechanical 


The Change Speed Gear Si 


speed change is nearly obsolete. It is 
generally designated as the Sliding Fea¬ 
ther Gear, and in it the constantly meshed 



LOW SPEED ENGAGED. 

A, Forward part of main shaft: B, Gear on forward part of 
main shaft engaged with gear (C) on counter shaft (D); E, Counter 
shaft gear engaged with gear (F) on rear part of main shaft (G); 
H, Gears not in engagement. 


























































































82 A. B. C. of Motoring 

gear wheels run loose on their shafts. 
A sliding feather by means of which any 
desired wheel may be locked to the shaft 
determines which two wheels in the 
gear case transmit the power. 



GEAR-CHANGE MECHANISM, SHOWING HIGHEST 
SPEED ENGAGED. 

A, Forward part of main shaft; B, Gear engaging with gear (C) 
on counter shaft (E); F, Counter-shaft gear engaged with gear (G) 
on rear part of main shaft (H); I, Gears not in engagement. 






























































































The Change Speed Gear 83 

A simple form of the sliding gear 
system for a chain-drive car consists of 
two shafts enclosed in the tight oil-filled 
gear case. One of these shafts, on which 
are rigidly mounted a number of gear 
wheels incapable of any lateral move¬ 
ment, is the one which is driven directly 
from the motor by means of the friction 
clutch, and is called the main or primary 
shaft. The other one receives its motion 
by a gear arrangement from the first, 
and forms the secondary shaft. A part 
of this is square, and on this portion a 
sliding sleeve is arranged to which a 
number of wheels of increasing diameter, 
corresponding with the number of speeds 
of the car, are bolted in concentric 
fashion. These wheels are spaced so 
that only one at a time may be slid into 
mesh. The sliding sleeve is operated by 
a fork by means of which it may be 
pushed along the shaft and the various 
wheels engaged on which the different 
ratio of the shaft revolutions and speed 
depends. 

In a speed change gear of this descrip¬ 
tion, the power is transmitted to the driv¬ 
ing wheels from the secondary shaft 
through a bevel gear and counter-shaft, 
while in a cardan-drive car, where the 


84 A. B. C. of Motoring 

driving wheels get the power through a 
longitudinal universal joint shaft, the 
arrangement of the speed change gear is 
modified by the different construction. 

It is, perhaps, needless to say that in 
changing from one speed to the other, 
the friction clutch ought to be disen¬ 
gaged, as otherwise the change would 
have to be effected under pressure and 
the gears would be subject to consider¬ 
able wear. 


CHAPTER XI. 

THE REVERSING GEAR. 

Although some inventors have suc¬ 
ceeded in constructing internal combus¬ 
tion engines with reversing ability, they 



C, Counter-shaft gear. 

are so complicated that they have hardly 
a chance to affect the use of mechanical 
devices for the purpose. 

In one of the two methods usually 
employed in constructing a reverse mech¬ 
anism, two stationary gear wheels are 
mounted opposite each other on the speed 
gear shafts in the gear case, without, 
however, coming into mesh during the 
85 




86 


d. B. C. of Motoring 


forward movement of the car. Only 
when the reverse lever is actuated do 
they come into play by both meshing 
with a third wheel, which engagement 
reverses the opposite motion of the two 
shafts, and causes them to revolve in the 
same direction. This arrangement is 
based on the principle that when two 
wheels mesh they revolve in opposite 
directions, but when a third one is 
meshed between the two the outer ones 
travel only one way. 

In the second arrangement, a bevel 
gear wheel is fixed on the driven speed 
shaft in a way that it can mesh rectangu¬ 
larly on either side with one or the other 
of two wheels of the same description, 
which results in the reversing effect. 


CHAPTER XII. 

THE DIFFERENTIAL. 

The object of the differential in an 
automobile is to effect the revolution of 
both rear or driving wheels, making it 
at the same time possible to move one 
wheel at a greater rate of speed than 
the other. It is obvious that in making 
a turn, the wheels of a car revolve at 
different speeds. But while the front 
wheels, being mounted independently, 
adapt themselves to the speed required, 
the rear wheels, which take up the driv¬ 
ing power from the motor and have to 
act jointly, could not do so were they 
mounted on a rigid axle, as, in making a 
turn, the outside wheel has to travel a 
much greater distance than the inner one. 

To balance this difference in speed, 
the differential becomes necessary, and 
for the purpose the driving axle is made 
in two portions which are joined to¬ 
gether by a suitable gear, and is thus 
made flexible. The mechanism is en¬ 
closed in an oil-tight case to protect it 
from the dirt of the road, and is mounted 
in chain-driven cars on the counter-shaft; 
in cardan-driven cars on the rear axle. 


87 




DIFFERENTIAL (Cadillac). 









































































































































































The Differential 


89 


Not all experts are agreed on the abso¬ 
lute necessity of a differential which is a 
rather sensitive mechanism, and often 
comes in unrequired action when, for ex¬ 
ample, one of the wheels strikes an obsta¬ 
cle. On the whole, however, most manu¬ 
facturers are convinced of its necessity, 
and there are few modern cars without 
it. 

Among the various differential con¬ 
structions, the bevel gear and spur gear 
types are the most common. The action 
of an ordinary example of the first, which 
is the more widely used, may be shortly 
described as follows: 

The load on both sides of the bevel 
pinions of the mechanism being constant, 
the whole apparatus turns solidly with¬ 
out relative motion when the casing is 
set in rotation; but as soon as this bal¬ 
ance is disturbed by the load on one 
wheel-set of the mechanism becoming 
heavier, or if, for some reason, they start 
to move faster than the other, then a 
revolution of an equalizing set of pin¬ 
ions follows with sufficient speed to com¬ 
pensate for the difference in velocity, 
and the entire power is transmitted to the 
wheel offering the smallest resistance to 
rotation. 


90 


A, B, C. of Motoring 

The action of a spur gear differential 
is the same as that of a bevel gear, but 



DIFFERENTIAL, KNOCKED DOWN (Thomas). 


the arrangement of the mechanism is 
different. Two spur wheels are fixed to 
the two ends of the divided axle shaft 
meeting each other in the gear case. One 
of these is an ordinary spur wheel, while 
the other is toothed internally. A ring 
with three small pinions takes the drive 
from the motor. These pinions mesh 
with the internally toothed wheel on one 
shaft end and with the regular spur 
wheel on the other. 








CHAPTER XIII 

THE BRAKE. 

A brake, in the general sense of the 
word, is an apparatus for reducing or 
altogether checking the motion of a ve¬ 
hicle or any moving part of it. It is an 
absolutely necessary mechanism in an' 
automobile where acquired speed in con¬ 
nection with the emergencies of the road 
make a sudden stop often imperative. 
The mechanism itself may be attached 
to various parts of the car which impart 
motion, such as the transmission, the 
wheel hubs or the tires (the latter method 
is obsolete on account of undue wear), 
but the foot pedal or hand lever which 
actuates it is always placed conveniently 
for the driver to bring it easily into play. 

Brake systems do not show a great 
variety, being principally confined to 
band brakes of different construction. 
Hydraulic and pneumatic brakes have 
not proven a success, and electric brakes 
are invariably employed in automobiles 
of that description. 

The simplest band brake consists of a 
flexible steel band, which is often lined 


91 


92 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


with a suitable substance, such as leather, 
fiber or copper, in order to increase its 
gripping quality, and is placed around 
a brake drum. The contraction of this 
steel band, effected by a system of levers, 
causes the retarding friction which 



checks the forward momentum of the 
car. This style of brake is not practical, 
however, for stopping a reverse move¬ 
ment, as an attempt in that direction re¬ 
sults in the release of the tension of the 
brake band and jerks the control from 
the operator. 







The Brake 


93 


A considerable improvement on this 
style are the double acting band brakes 
of external or internal friction type in 
which the braking difficulty in the re¬ 
verse movement is entirely done away 
with. In an effective pattern of this 



RUNNING BRAKE (Locomobile). 


kind, the steel band is replaced by two 
hinged metal clips lying around the 
brake drum. The pivot of the hinge is 
fixed to the car, and the brake acts by the 
two clips being contracted on the brake 
drum. 

Internal band brakes are of the expan¬ 
sion type, are usually encased, and work 
on the inner surface of brake drums 
fixed to the road wheels. They are very 
effective, reliable and largely in use. 




CHAPTER XIV 

THE MUFFLER. 

It has been pointed out under the head¬ 
ing “The Gasoline Motor” that the 
exhaust stroke of the cylinder piston 
forces the burned gases from the com¬ 
bustion chamber. The explosion and 
sudden expansion of these gases at the 
opening of the exhaust pipe cause con¬ 
siderable noise, to subdue which, is the 
object of the muffler or silencer. The 
purpose is accomplished by a metal 
chamber of large dimensions, attached 
under the car, into which the gases are 
led by means of the exhaust pipe, and 
where they are allowed to expand and 
cool before escaping into the air. 

[n their passage through the muffler, 
the gases are forced into a series of com¬ 
partments consisting of perforated plates 
or light metal tubes, thus being divided 
into a large number of fine jets, which at 
their exit have barely more than atmos¬ 
pheric pressure, and cause the puffing, 
but much reduced noise at the mouth 
of the silencing chamber. This mouth 
should be in a position so as not to dis- 


94 


The Muffler 95 

turb the dust of the road hy the blow 
from it. 

The size of the muffler, as well as the 
perforations of tubes and plates divid¬ 
ing the compartments, ought to corre- 



A, Inlet from Cylinders for Exhaust; B, Muffler: 

C, Exhaust Outlet from Muffler. 

spond with the horse-power of the car in 
order to give the best service, and in large 
machines sometimes two or more of them 
are employed in series. To more effect¬ 
ually deaden the noises, which may be 
caused by the resonance of the metal 
chambers, layers of asbestos frequently 
are used. 

There is still room for improvement 
in this adjunct of an automobile, noise¬ 
less running being the desideratum of all 
motorists. 













CHAPTER XV 

THE STEERING APPARATUS. 

Among the three steering devices used 
in automobile construction, wheel-steer¬ 
ing predominates by far, and is used in 
all the heavier and better types of gaso¬ 
line and steam cars. Lever and side-bar¬ 
steering are principally used on lighter 
gasoline and electric machines, but are 
gradually losing in favor. 

A wheel-steering device generally con¬ 
sists of a worm gear or endless screw 
which meshes with a quadrant or section 
of a toothed wheel. The screw forms the 
lower end of the more or less inclined 
steering-column, which bears at its head 
the steering-wheel. The quadrant is 
mounted on a steering-arm, which is con¬ 
nected through a lever with the steering- 
rods and front wheels. Screw and quad¬ 
rant are, as a rule, enclosed in an oil- 
tight case. 

The action takes place by a turn of the 
steering-wheel to the right or left, which 
transmits the motion to the worm-screw 
at the end of the steering-column, and 
causes a corresponding movement of the 

96 


97 


The Steering Apparatus 

meshed teeth of the quadrant. The 
power is thence transferred to the rods 
and wheels, the deviation of the latter 



from the straight direction depending on 
the smaller or larger radius of the turn 
given the steering-wheel by the driver. 

In this system, however, the wear on 
the worm-gear and quadrant will, in 
time, cause back-lash, and another me¬ 
chanism, the screw and adjustable-nut- 
design, in which the play can be taken up 
whenever needed, has an advantage in 
this respect. Both of these designs be¬ 
long to the irreversible type of steering 
mechanisms in which a locking de¬ 
vice prevents any chance movement of 




A. B. C. of Motoring 


the steering-wheel by a motion of the 
front wheels. 

The pinion and rack and pinion and 
quadrant steering mechanisms are of the 
reversible type, but it takes quite a con¬ 
siderable movement of the front road 
wheels to affect the steering-wheel, on 
account of the reduction of motion be¬ 
tween the two. 


CHAPTER XVI 

THE TIRES. 

The riding quality of an automobile 
depends, to a large extent, on the rubber 
tires, and it is the aim of tire manufact¬ 
urers to combine durability and resili¬ 
ency with the safest method of attach¬ 
ment in order to achieve that result. Ef¬ 
forts have been made by inventors of 
wheels, with a system of springs or other 
absorbers of vibration, to replace rubber 
tires, which form a considerable item in 
the maintenance of a car; but these ef¬ 
forts have, so far, been futile, and the 
line of improvement in riding comfort 
lies still in making pneumatic tires more 
puncture-proof, and their mounting and 
dismounting less troublesome. 

Solid tires, which are more durable 
and economical have but little resili¬ 
ency, and their use may be said to be re¬ 
stricted to commercial vehicles. Cushion 
tires have some advantage over the solid 
type in resiliency, but have drawbacks 
in other directions, and, therefore, for 
pleasure cars the pneumatic tire is the 
only one which can give relative satisfac- 

99 

L. ora 


ioo A. B. C. of Motoring 

tion. These conditions would, perhaps, 
be different if roads were uniformly 
good. 

Of the two forms of pneumatic tires, 
the single and double-tube, the latter is 
by far the more popular, principally on 
account of the greater speed obtainable 
with it. Single-tubes are, as a rule, only 


SWINEHART SOLID TIRE. 



employed on lighter vehicles with mode¬ 
rate speed ability. 

The difference between a single and 
double-tube tire consists in that the air- 
tube of the first, being vulcanized to the 
inner surface of the tire, is an integral 
part of it, while in the double-tube tire 
the inner tube forms an independent air- 
chamber which comes in contact with 




The Tires 


IOI 


the outer cover only when inflated. 
There is a further difference in the 
method of attachment. 

The systems of fastening a double¬ 
tube tire to the rim of the wheel are quite 



variegated, and on the different methods 
for security of attachment and ease of 
handling, depends the efficiency of the 
tire. The most typical form is the 
Clincher tire with its many modifica¬ 
tions, which is used by the best French, 
German, English and American manu¬ 
facturers. 

The outer cover of a Clincher tire has 
so-called beaded edges which, on the tire 
being mounted and inflated, are tightly 









102 


A . B. C. of Motoring 


forced by the air pressure into the in- 
turned lips of the rim which hold the tire 



CONTINENTAL 

in position; but, since this fastening 
alone is not sufficient to resist the tre¬ 
mendous side-pull when making turns 
at high speed, further mechanical means 
of strengthening its hold become neces¬ 
sary. This is generally effected by means 
of clamping bolts, but even these de¬ 
vices, combined with the strength of the 
Clincher edges, are often insufficient to 
stand the strain of racing speeds. 

The construction of tires is quite a 
complicated business, and this, together 










The Tires 


103 


with the constantly increasing cost of 
crude rubber, accounts for the high 
prices. In the best makes, the outer 
cover of a tire is made of a heavy tread 
of fine rubber, the thickness of which di¬ 
minishes towards the sides, and of alter¬ 
nate layers of fabric and rubber which 
are vulcanized together. For the inner 
tube, to which the air-valve is attached, 
only the best quality of rubber is per¬ 
missible. 

To diminish the possibility of slipping 
or skidding, the tread is often corrugated 
or shows other projections which give it 
a rough surface. While this affords 
some protection, it is, by no means, a 
preventive, and there are many inde¬ 
pendent anti-slipping devices in the mar¬ 
ket. They generally take the form of 
strong leather bands, studded with metal 
buttons which are vulcanized to the 
tread, of similar detachable covers to be 
laced entirely around the tire, or of 
metal studs projecting directly from the 
rubber tread. A simple, effective and, 
at the same time, cheap anti-slipping de¬ 
vice, attachable at will, consists of a 
smooth metal-chain loosely laid around 
the tire surface in the form of a wide 
mesh. This does not cause undue wear 


104 B. C. of Motoring 

of the tire, and its effect on the speed is 
quite unappreciable. 

As to the method of repairing tires, 
it may be shortly stated that in double¬ 
tubes, after jacking up the car, the out¬ 
side edge of the cover has to be freed 
from the lip and the inner tube entirely 
removed before the damage of a punc¬ 
ture can be effectively remedied. Di¬ 
rections for the process are found in 
every tire repair kit. If the puncture is 
insignificant, it may, in an emergency 
case, be fixed by inserting and cementing 
in it a rivet-shaped rubber patch, such as 
is used in the single-tube repairs. Some¬ 
times, if the distance afterward to be 
covered is not too great, even a tight 
cement bandage will suffice for tempor¬ 
ary repairs. 


CHAPTER XVII 
THE CARE OF AN AUTOMOBILE. 

With the simplification of the mechan¬ 
ism, the introduction of automatic lu¬ 
brication, and the protection of the ma¬ 
chinery against road dirt by means of 
metal aprons and gear casings, etc., the 
modern automobile does not give half as 
much trouble in its care-taking as of yore. 
Nevertheless, the man who runs his car 
himself, and wants to do it on an econom¬ 
ical basis, will find that it takes consider¬ 
able attention to keep an automobile in 
good condition, which is the only way to 
get proper service out of it. Neither 
should this attention, in the form of su¬ 
pervision, be omitted in case a chauffeur 
is employed, as many of these are only 
too negligent in the care of the vehicles 
entrusted to them. In both cases an in¬ 
timate knowledge of the working parts 
of the machine is a necessity. 

Undoubtedly, the most important 
thing in the preservation of the motor 
mechanism is the lubrication; but, while 
a modern automobile, as a rule, has an 
effective system of automatic oiling for 
the principal parts of the motor, trans- 

i°5 


106 A . B. C. of Motoring 

mission, etc., there are still numerous 
components of the car which need per¬ 
sonal attention. According to the wear 
to which the various parts are subjected, 
they will need more or less attention and 
a larger or smaller quantity of oil, the 
quality and consistency of which differs 
again according to the mechanism on 
which it is employed. The instruction 
booklets of the manufacturers give gen¬ 
eral information on this subject, but prac¬ 
tice soon teaches the driver the best me¬ 
dium of lubrication. 

It is superfluous to point out that the 
tanks and oil-tight casings for automatic 
lubrication of motor and gears should 
always be kept filled with their proper 
grease, so as not to need attention dur¬ 
ing the running of the car, but it is of 
just as mucli importance to see that the 
little nuts, screws, pipes, etc., which 
form part of the system, are properly 
looked after, since neglect in this regard 
often causes trouble. 

Less frequent attention is demanded 
by the clutch and such parts as are in¬ 
cluded in the running gear system, as 
axles, hubs, springs, clips, etc., but care 
of them, at regular intervals, will well 
repay the trouble. Purely metallic 


The Care of an Automobile 107 

friction clutches need, however, much 
more oiling than leather-faced ones. 
These are kept in good shape by an oc¬ 
casional wiping with a kerosene-soaked 
rag which removes the road dust. The 
leather facing should be renewed before 
it is much worn. 

In the case of axles, which are lubri¬ 
cated by consistent grease in oil-tight 
casings, it is advisable to remove the 
wheels every six months or so for the pur¬ 
pose of thorough cleansing and re-filling 
with fresh grease. Hubs, according to 
the use of the car, may be lubricated 
every two to four weeks. Springs should 
always be greased as soon as the slightest 
squeaking is noticed. 

In chain-driven cars, the chain and 
sprocket need much attention, as gritty 
mud and dust adhere to them in quanti¬ 
ties, and cause considerable wear of the 
chain links, besides affecting the speed 
of the car to some extent. The drive 
chain should always be removed and 
cleaned after long tours. An hour’s soak¬ 
ing, with subsequent washing in kero¬ 
sene, will remove the dirt, and, after an 
oil bath, and dripping-off of the super¬ 
fluous lubricant, the chain is again ready 
for use, 


io8 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


Tt is well to remember, in connection 
with the subject of oiling, that there is 
such a thing as too much lubrication, 
and that during the colder season thinner 
oil may be profitably substituted, in the 
oil pumps, for a heavier grade. 

As to gasoline, this should always be 
supplied to the tank through some suit¬ 
able filter, in order to keep out impurities 
which are apt to clog the fine channels of 
the carbureter, causing infinite trouble 
thereby, and in handling this fuel it 
should never be forgotten that night is 
not the time for filling a tank, and that 
a burning pipe, cigar or cigarette are 
dangerous neighbors. Where a larger 
quantity of gasoline is kept at hand, it 
should be stored in an underground res¬ 
ervoir at a safe distance from buildings. 

It goes without saying, that the same 
rule of cleanliness applying to gasoline 
should apply to the water for the cooling 
system. Dirty water causes a sediment 
in the pipes which hinders the circula¬ 
tion. A fine sieve at the point where the 
water tank is filled will be found of good 
service. Strongly alkaline water should 
not be used for cooling purposes, as it 
leaves a hard deposit on the heated parts 
of the motor, which is difficult to remove 


The Care of an Automobile 109 

and causes trouble in the cylinders. The 
pump connections and other parts of the 
cooling system need occasional inspection 
and tightening. Freezing of the water 
in the apparatus must be prevented by 
all means, and, during winter, in an un¬ 
heated garage, the cooling system should 
be thoroughly drained between use. If 
no good anti-freezing solution is em¬ 
ployed, freezing, during short stops, can 
be prevented by letting the motor run at 
slow speed. During long stops it is more 
economical to drain. Relating to anti¬ 
freezing solutions it must be remarked 
that they tend to corrode, more or less, 
the metal parts with which they come in 
contact. 

The carbureter, beingfthe seat of much 
trouble when not perfectly working, 
should always be kept scrupulously 
clean, and it is not a bad plan to occa¬ 
sionally take it apart for the purpose. 

In the ignition system, constant atten¬ 
tion should be paid to perfect contacts, 
and these points should be cleaned from 
time to time with kerosene. The spark 
plugs must be inspected quite frequently 
as they are apt to get foul, in which case 
they cause misfiring. When examining 
them, the points of the sparking wires, if 


no A. B. C. of Motoring 

not at proper distance, may also be re¬ 
adjusted. The correct distance is about 
1-32 inch. The isolating substance of the 
wires should be protected against the 
damaging effect of oil by wiping it off 
whenever necessary. As to the brakes, 
they will need an occasional re-adjust¬ 
ment and cleaning of the steel bands. 

Tires in use ought to be always well 
inflated and, if practicable, repaired on 
the spot in case of puncture, as running 
a car any distance on a flat tire ruins not 
only the inner tube, but also the outer 
cover and is a costly proceeding consid¬ 
ering the price of tires. 

If the car is out of use for any length 
of time, such as during the winter, the 
tires should be inflated only sufficiently 
to carry the weight, or they may be alto¬ 
gether removed, in which case they 
should be kept in a dark and moderately 
cool place. 

The car itself, after returning from a 
dirty drive, should be washed as soon as 
possible by means of a hose,^wiped with 
a soft sponge, and polishedxlry with a 
soft chamois skin or clean waste. The 
upholstery may, from time to time, be 
rubbed with a vaseline rag to preserve 
the pliancy and lustre of the leather. 


The Care of an Automobile iii 

In general it may be said that it is 
better to spend the time necessary for the 
proper care of an automobile shortly 
after, than just before using it, when, in 
most cases, the work can be done more 
leisurely and thoroughly. 

In conclusion of the chapter, the mo¬ 
torist may be advised that it is a good 
plan to keep track of all expenditures 
in connection with the car, such as fuel, 
oil, repairs, supplies, etc., as it is a satis¬ 
faction to know, at the end of each sea¬ 
son, just what the maintenance of the car 
has cost. If an odometer has been at¬ 
tached to the vehicle, it is then, too, easy 
to figure out the running cost per mile. 
“Krausz’s Complete Automobile Rec¬ 
ord” (Laird & Lee, Chicago) will be 
found the most practical book for this 
purpose. 


CHAPTER XVIII 

TROUBLES OF THE ROAD. 

Road troubles need have no great ter¬ 
rors for the motorist who keeps his car 
in good shape and makes sure, before 
starting on a tour, that every part of the 
mechanism is in good working order, 
that nuts, bolts, screws are tightened, lu¬ 
bricating and water tanks are filled, tires 
in condition, that the wiring is in order, 
and the strength of the batteries of the 
proper voltage. An ounce of preven¬ 
tion is better than a pound of cure, and 
with these precautions road troubles, un¬ 
less caused by accident, will be reduced 
to a minimum. 

There are, however, unforeseen emer¬ 
gencies which no precaution can pre¬ 
vent, and a complete set of tools with 
small spare parts and certain supplies 
are indispensable adjuncts of an automo¬ 
bile before going on an extended trip. 
For local use it is hardly necessary to en¬ 
cumber the car with such a list as is 
given here for longer tours, but in gen¬ 
eral it may be said that it is better to 
have handy too many tools and acces¬ 
sories than not enough. 


I I 2 


Troubles of the Road 113 

The following will be found indispen¬ 
sable for touring: 

A jack. 

An air pump. 

A Stilson wrench. 

A monkey wrench. 

Various pliers. 

A key puller. 

A small hammer. 

A large hammer. 

Set of tire tools. 

Various files. 

A cold chisel. 

Various spanners. „ 

A large and a small screwdriver. 

Scissors. 

A strong knife. 

A funnel with chamois skin lining. 

An oil pump. 

Tire repair kit. 

Among the spare parts several chain 
links, a valve or two, a couple of spark 
plugs, 2 inner tubes, a tire casing, and 
some of the smaller nuts and screws, 
which are apt to work loose, will be 
found necessary. 

Of instruments, supplies and miscel¬ 
laneous things, an ammeter, densimeter, 
an oil can, a spool of wire, a rope, old 
gloves, goggles, overalls, soap and clean 


114 A. B. C. of Motoring 

waste are important accessories to have 
along. 

If trouble in the functions of the mo¬ 
tor occurs on the road, the experienced 
driver will, as a rule, he able to locate it 
soon, as the various disturbances of the 
engine have their unmistakable symp¬ 
toms. To diagnose these takes practice, 
and theoretical knowledge, gained from 
books, can only slightly aid the beginner. 

The stopping of the motor, or its ir¬ 
regular working in a well-conditioned 
car may, however, generally be traced to 
very simple causes, and the novice will, 
sometimes, save much unnecessary work 
by ascertaining, before making further 
inspection, whether the trouble is not 
caused by lack of gasoline in the fuel 
tank, or by an insignificant disturbance 
in the ignition system. The latter is the 
most fruitful source of trouble, but since 
ignition disturbances manifest them¬ 
selves in fitful working of the engine be¬ 
fore it stops, this cause of trouble ought 
to be quickly recognized. 

In that case the fault may be looked 
for in a loose wire connection, caused by 
some little screw working loose, an ex¬ 
hausted battery, foul spark plugs or in a 
poor contact of the commutator. If a 


Troubles of the Road 115 

short circuit is detected, it may be the 
result of bad insulation, loose or dirty 
connections, poor adjustments, defective 
or moist spark plugs and other minor 
faults. It is generally indicated by mis¬ 
firing, explosions, and jerky, sluggish 
movement of the car. 

If a careful examination fails to dis¬ 
close trouble in the ignition system, then 
a systematic inspection of the car mech¬ 
anism has to be started. This should be 
done in logical sequence, and the work¬ 
ing of the engine tried after every ad¬ 
justment of the part where the seat of the 
trouble is suspected. In this way much 
experience may be gained. 

Probable causes of trouble, aside from 
the ignition, may be looked for in the 
carbureter which may be choked up, 
flooded, chilled (in cold weather), or 
contain water, which irregularities are 
also indicated by the same symptoms of 
misfiring, explosions and sluggish run¬ 
ning of the motor,*as in ignition disturb¬ 
ances. Cleaning the parts, emptying or 
temporarily shutting off the supply, and 
warming the outer surface of the carbu¬ 
reter are the respective remedies. A pan 
of hot water will prove effective in the 
latter case. An open flame should never 
be used to remove the chill. 


116 A. B C. of Motoring 

Faulty compression manifests itself 
in waning power of the engine, weak re¬ 
sistance in turning the starting crank, 
misfiring and hissing sounds. It is caused 
by faulty valves and piston rings, by 
leaks at tube connections, broken spark 
plugs or too thin oil. Entire lack of 
compression is shown by no resistance 
whatever at the turning of the crank 
handle. In this case look for trouble in 
the valves which may be broken or stuck. 

Trouble in the cooling system may be 
caused by defects and broken or worn 
parts of the water pump, by choked or 
leaking pipes, by oil in the pump or radi¬ 
ator, or by wrong proportion between 
cooling water and cooling surface. 
These causes result in disturbing the cir¬ 
culation and overheating the engine and 
are often hard to remove on the road. 

Gear troubles generally originate 
from loose or worn bearings, loose pin¬ 
ions, or a displaced gear case, and may be 
diagnosed by a clattering noise in the 
gear case and troublesome changing of 
speeds. 

Unlubricated, loose or too tight bear¬ 
ings are indicated by a squeaking noise, 
rattling and overheating of the affected 
parts. 


Troubles of the Road 117 

The knocking noise in the engine, 
which the novice quickly learns to dis¬ 
tinguish from the ordinary noises of the 
motor, is always a sign that something 
is wrong. As soon as it is heard, an in¬ 
spection ought to take place. The trouble 
may not amount to much, but the quicker 
it is looked after, the better it is. Some¬ 
times it is only want of lubrication, too 
much advanced firing or an overheated 
engine. Then again it may be a loose 
connecting rod or gudgeon pin, worn 
piston rod bearings or water in the cylin¬ 
der. 

As to tire troubles, they have been 
touched on in the chapter on Tires, but it 
may be added here that after repairing 
an inner tube on the road and mounting 
it again, care must be taken to do this 
with the tube slightly inflated, as other¬ 
wise it easily gets pinched. In using the 
mounting tools this danger should always 
be borne in mind and avoided. It is a 
good plan to practice tire mounting in 
the garage, so as to become familiar with 
the process. 

The hints given above will, as a rule, 
prove useful to the beginner and will 
suffice, as he is not apt to risk long tours 
alone before being thoroughly proficient 


n8 A. B. C. of Motoring 

in the science of motoring, which can be 
acquired only by deeper study and the 
lessons of the road as presented from 
time to time by the troubles turning up 
during shorter runs. The novice will 
feel himself all the sooner master of the 
situation the less he relies on the help of 
others and the harder he himself tries to 
solve the problems encountered in run¬ 
ning a car. 


CHAPTER XIX 
THE ART OF DRIVING. 

It is supposed that an intelligent man, 
having had no previous experience with 
automobiles, will make himself familiar 
with the various working parts of the 
motor mechanism before he attempts to 
drive a car himself. This in order to 
better reason from cause to effect. It is 
easy enough to learn to steer an automo¬ 
bile, but unless you know your machine 
thoroughly, this knowledge alone may 
not always be sufficient in case of a sud¬ 
den emergency. Theory alone, however, 
is not enough. It takes practice, consid¬ 
erable practice, to acquire that nerve and 
rapidity of judgment which the motorist 
is often called upon to display, especially 
when driving in the crowded thorough¬ 
fares of a city, and what is said in this 
chapter is, therefore, only intended to 
serve as a useful hint to beginners. 

Let us suppose you are in the act of 
starting for a drive, after you have im¬ 
bibed some theoretical knowledge. You 
will do well to convince yourself, in the 
first place, that gasoline and water tanks 
are filled, carbureter connections and oil 


120 


A . B. C. of Motoring 

pumps open, all not automatically lubri¬ 
cated parts well greased, that the ignition 
apparatus is in good order, and the tires 
are properly inflated. Also see that the 
engine is out of gear, brakes and levers 
are working properly, and, in general, 
everything in tip-top shape. 

After satisfactory inspection, step to 
the front of the car to start the motor, but 
not before you have turned on the switch 
for the ignition, and retarded the spark 
lever to proper position in order to avoid 
back-fire and a consequent kick from the 
starting crank. In starting the motor of 
a light car, it is best to give the starting 
crank, after having pushed it tightly 
against the crankshaft, a few swift turns 
which, under ordinary conditions, will 
put the engine in motion. In high-pow¬ 
ered cars considerable effort is necessary 
to force the crank over the compression, 
and it is advisable to use the power of 
the flywheel for the purpose. This is 
done by pulling the starting crank 
towards you, and letting it go again. If 
this is repeated several times, it will be 
found that the stored energy in the fly¬ 
wheel, with the further aid of a strong 
pull, is sufficient to start the engine go¬ 
ing. 


The Art of Driving 121 

The motor being in motion, see 
whether oil pumps are acting, take your 
seat behind the steering wheel, and place, 
with one hand on it, the front wheels in 
straight direction. Release hand brake. 
Put the speed lever to first speed notch 
and, simultaneously, by depressing the 
proper foot lever, let in the clutch as 
gradually as possible in order to avoid a 
jerk. This will slowly start the car. 

It becomes necessary now to watch 
how the manipulation of the steering 
wheel affects the direction of the car, and 
for that purpose keep going at slow 
speed, without changing the position of 
the spark lever and throttle from that in 
which they were at the starting of the 
motor. Having observed and practiced 
sufficiently the action of the car in re¬ 
sponse to the turns of the steering wheel, 
the spark may be slightly advanced, 
which will increase the revolutions of 
the motor and, with it, the speed of the 
car. It may be observed here that for 
the practice of driving, a dry straight 
road should be selected where there is 
little or no traffic, and that no attempt 
should be made to change to higher 
speeds before one feels safe in handling 
the car on the lower ones. 


122 A. B. C. of Motoring 

The change from a lower speed to the 
next higher one is effected by the simul¬ 
taneous pressing of the clutch pedal, 
which releases the clutch grip, and mov¬ 
ing of the speed lever from the first to 
the second, second to the third, or 
third to the fourth notch, as the case 
may be. In changing from lower to 
higher speeds it is well to increase, im¬ 
mediately before doing so, the revolu¬ 
tions of the motor by advancing the 
spark and retarding it again, as far as 
possible, at the moment of moving the 
speed lever. 

In connection with this subject, it is 
well to remember that in going from 
lower to higher speeds, the speed lever 
should be moved with a short, quick mo¬ 
tion. In the reverse case, the change 
should take place softly and gradually, 
and the revolutions of the motor should 
be diminished immediately before the 
change. In short, the process of going 
from a higher to a lower speed is exactly 
the opposite from that of going from the 
lower to the higher, described in the 
previous paragraph. 

The reverse gear should never be ope¬ 
rated while the car is going at high 
speed, except in case of impending dan- 


The Art of Driving 123 

ger. In fact, the speed lever should be 
brought to lowest speed before reversing. 

To momentarily diminish speed, the 
clutch has to be disengaged by depress¬ 
ing the clutch pedal, and to stop, the 
handbrake should be gradually applied 
in addition. If the stop is only tempor¬ 
ary, the engine may be thrown out of 
gear, slowed down by means of the ac¬ 
celerator and retarding the spark lever, 
and allowed to run free. On returning 
to the garage stop and throw out of gear 
the motor, shut off gasoline and oil sup¬ 
ply, turn off switch and, if necessary on 
account of coldness, drain the cooling 
system. 

The beginner is especially warned to 
restrict himself during his early prac¬ 
tice, even in a lighter car, to the first two 
speeds, and to withstand the temptation 
of not allowing other motorists to over¬ 
take him, a temptation which is strong 
in a novice who begins to feel that he is 
getting to master his machine. It will 
also be well for him to practice the use 
of the brakes and the entire shutting off 
of power for the purpose of learning to 
make quick stops, even if this is done at 
the cost of some wear to the tires. Once 
thoroughly familiar with this process, it 


124 A. B. C. of Motoring 

should only be used when absolutely nec¬ 
essary, as too sudden stopping is a tre¬ 
mendous strain on the tires, and often 
causes skidding, even on dry roads. 

Special care should be taken when 
^riving on wet asphalt pavements or 
jther slippery roads, and more so if the 
tires are worn and unprovided with an 
anti-slipping device. Under such condi¬ 
tions, sometimes a slight movement of 
the steering wheel or an obstacle in the 
road is sufficient to cause skidding, and 
in this case, the novice will always feel 
tempted to apply the brakes. This is a 
mistake which, however, is not apt to be 
serious if the car is going at slow speed. 
On the other hand, the applying of the 
brake to skidding wheels is a dangerous 
affair when occurring at high speed. It 
is by far better to shut off the power en¬ 
tirely, as the car, while running on the 
momentum only, is easier of control, and 
the power, unless the car has stopped or 
is moving too slowly, can be picked up 
again on a slow speed when it is seen that 
the vehicle once more obeys the steering 
wheel. 

The noise of the engine is a point 
which should be studied, in order to be 
able to distinguish by sound whether 


The Art of Driving 


125 


there are any defects or whether, in cases 
of hill-climbing, the engine has arrived 
at its limit of power, in which case a 
change to lower speed is necessary to pre¬ 
vent the stopping of the car. 

With advancing proficiency in driw 
ing, it is well to pay attention to the ecc 
nomical running of the car in the way 
of using less fuel by the proper handling 
of throttle and spark lever, and allowing 
the vehicle, in suitable places, to run on 
its momentum with spark and mixture 
supply entirely shut off. Having mas¬ 
tered the intricacies of driving, and with 
growing practice, the driver soon will 
learn to observe and distinguish, without 
taking his attention from the road, all 
the various noises of his machine which 
either indicate that everything is alright, 
or that there are defects in certain parts 
of the car mechanism which need look¬ 
ing after. Having arrived at this point, 
he will fully enjoy the pleasure of mo¬ 
toring in a self-driven car. 

As to the proper conduct of the driver 
on the public roads, a careful perusal of 
the chapter on Automobile Etiquette is 
earnestly recommended. 


CHAPTER XX 

THE MANUFACTURE OF AN AUTOMOBILE.* 

The process of building a motor car 
is so little known to the layman and aver¬ 
age motorist that a short description of 
it will, doubtless, prove of interest. 

The first phase of the actual construc- 
truction of an automobile must be ob¬ 
served in the Raw Stock Rooms of the 
factory which contains all the bewilder¬ 
ing variety of material that goes into 
it. It is only when walking about these 
rooms that one realizes that it takes over 
1500 distinct parts to complete a modern 
motor car. 

To follow up the further phases of 
construction, the raw stock must be 
traced on its way to the various depart¬ 
ments where it undergoes considerable 
change, and where it can be met with 
again in polished and refined form, de¬ 
void of all crudeness and fit to take its 
place in the best of automobile society. 

t Before proceeding, however, it is ad¬ 
visable to separate the raw stock into two 
distinct groups to be traced successively: 
one which i s destined to go into the chas- 

* This is an excerpt from an article on the same subject written 
by the author, and published in “ The World To-day ” 

126 



Manufacture of an Automobile 127 

sis and the other into the body. The 
chassis being the more important, is to 
receive first attention, and it is perhaps 
advisable to repeat for the benefit of the 
layman that a chassis is the wooden, 
steel-enforced or pressed steel frame on 
wheels in which are suspended the mo¬ 
tor, running gears, steering apparatus 
and other mechanical parts, and to 
which, after its completion, the car body 
proper is attached. The latter consists 
of front seats and tonneau, dashboard, 
hood and mudguards. 

All metal parts of the chassis that need 
refinement and perfection in the way of 
brazing, cutting, shaving, drilling, bor¬ 
ing, polishing and general machining go 
first to the Machine Shop where the nec¬ 
essary touches are administered and the 
proper temper is given. Here scores of 
gear shapers, lathes, milling, grinding, 
screw and other machines and presses 
perform their work of producing crank¬ 
shafts and pinions, starting cranks, 
valves, cones, sprockets, flywheels, car¬ 
bureters, transmissions, levers, steering 
devices, cylinders, pistons, connecting 
rods and a hundred other parts. The 
work is done by hand, by machines ser¬ 
ved by men and by automatic machinery 


128 


A. B. C. of Motoring 

dispensing with human help altogether. 
Thousand-pound-bars of steel are handled 
with the smallest parts, and some of the 
work has to be done with such an accu¬ 
racy that it necessitates the use of micro¬ 
meters to measure thicknesses of 1-2000 
part of an inch. This is the case with 
crankshafts, cams and other parts that 
have to fit to perfection in order to make 
the intricate machinery do its work 
smoothly. All parts that go out from 
the Machine Shop are scrupulously ex¬ 
amined by expert inspectors before they 
are delivered to the Finished Stock 
Room, whence, in turn, they are distri¬ 
buted to the various departments. 

Attention must next be directed to the 
Motor Assembling Room. Since the 
motor is the most important part of an 
automobile, its assembling is a process 
which involves the utmost skill and care. 
The room in which it takes place is fur¬ 
nished with work benches, roller stands 
on which the assembling is done, and 
drill presses for valve grinding and pin¬ 
ning. The engine is placed on the stand 
where it receives successively the crank 
and camshafts, base bearings, connecting 
rods and cheek pieces. Afterward the 
cylinders, containing pistons and piston 


Manufacture of an Automobile 129 

rings, with water jackets (in the case of 
air-cooled cars without the latter) are 
bolted on to the base; valves, yokes, inlet 
and exhaust pipes are fitted and, where 
a planetary transmission is used, the fly¬ 
wheel is attached. All discrepancies of 
diameter and fitting have to be rectified, 
even if only by the touch of emery cloth, 
in order to secure minute exactness of 
shape and dimension. 

After assembling, the motors are sent 
to the Testing Room for further develop¬ 
ment. There they are put on testing 
blocks and, after thorough lubrication 
of the parts, run for a period of hours at 
a speed of a thousand or more revolu¬ 
tions per minute for the purpose of break¬ 
ing in and getting the cylinder compres¬ 
sion. Following this test the motors are 
connected to power fans and chains or 
shafts where they run from six to ten 
hours for detection of defects. Every¬ 
thing appearing satisfactory and after a 
last thorough examination and another 
oiling, the engines are transferred to the 
Final Assembling Room to be put into 
the chassis. 

Next to the motor in point of impor¬ 
tance is the construction of the running 
gear, as it is this part of the automobile 


i3° A. B C. of Motoring 

on which depend not only the carrying 
capacity and general strength, but part 
of the riding quality. The running gear 
forms the connecting link between the 
wheels and the body proper, and the 
parts handled in this department are the 
differential or compensating gear, the 
front and rear axle, axle housings, 
springs, knuckle connecting rods, diag¬ 
onal steering rods, spring bolsters, clips 
and some smaller parts. 

These parts being put in their places, 
the running gear is mechanically ready 
to be attached to the frame of the car, 
but not being in proper dress it first has 
to undergo an external metamorphosis 
in the Paint Shop before it is transferred 
to the Final Assembling Room. 

The next step in search for instruction 
leads to the Wood Shop where the first 
work on the bodies is done, and where 
rip saws, swing saws, disc sanders, spindle 
shapers and great triple drum sanders 
turn the raw material into shape. The 
Wood Shop turns out in the rough ton¬ 
neaus, front seats, seat rails, sills, car 
floors, dash-boards, seat bottoms, run¬ 
ning boards, battery and tool boxes, pat¬ 
terns, trimmings and special work of 
various nature. Among the woods prin- 


Manufacture of an Automobile 131 

cipally used are elm, whitewood, second- 
growth white ash, basswood and mahog¬ 
any, the stock being thoroughly seasoned 
before use. A special metal-lined lamin¬ 
ating room is often attached to the Wood 
Shop where a constant and even tempera¬ 
ture of 90-100 degrees is maintained. 
The whole product of this department 
goes to the Paint Shop for the finishing 
touches. 

Many factories use aluminum sheets 
in the production of their car bodies for 
the purpose of diminishing the weight of 
the machine, and have a regular Metal 
Body Department. There coal and gas 
forges prepare the angle iron, which 
forms the frame for the seats and ton¬ 
neaus, for the bending process. The iron 
is cut into proper lengths before heating 
and has rivet holes punched in it. The 
bending is followed by the brazing pro¬ 
cess which unites those parts that have 
to form integral pieces. The aluminum 
sheets, having been cut into correct 
shapes, are bent and riveted to the angle 
iron frames, the wood bottoms put into 
the seats, and, after all parts have had 
the rivet heads ground even with the sur¬ 
face, seats and bodies are joined together 
by screws and are provided with top 


132 A. B. C. of Motoring 

ironings. This is the stage when the 
wooden railings which hold the uphol¬ 
stery, are attached in the Wood Shop, 
the aluminum is rubbed smooth prepara¬ 
tory to receiving the first coat of paint, 
and the brass trimmings are fitted. Be¬ 
fore going to the Paint Shop, however, a 
critical examination on the inspectors’ 
table has to prove the work faultless in 
every detail. 

The work done in the Paint Shop 
appeals strongly to the purchaser and 
plays a large role in selling a car. The 
Paint Shop is generally divided into one 
large space and one or two smaller sec¬ 
tions. In the larger, the ground work, 
puttying and first painting is done. 
It also contains the so-called rubbing- 
deck, where, with powdered pumice 
stone and water, crudenesses are re¬ 
moved and the parts prepared for polish¬ 
ing. In the smaller sections, the last 
coats of paint and color varnish and the 
varnish rubbing are administered. Fin¬ 
ishing touches and the final coat of var¬ 
nish are put on in a dust-proof room of 
high temperature. It may be stated 
here, that to give a car that resplendent 
lustre and finish which adds so much to 
its appearance, it takes from eight to 


Manufacture of an Automobile 133 

sixteen coats of paint and varnish, the 
number depending on the various parts 
of the body and running gear. 

While sills, gears and other parts are 
removed from the Paint Shop to the 
Final Assembling Room, the seats and 
tonneaus are transferred to the Uphol¬ 
stery Department, which provides the 
seating comfort of the automobile, before 
they are delivered to the same place. 

In the Final Assembling Room the 
work is mostly done by hand. The pro¬ 
cess of assembling starts with the placing 
of the sills or steel frames on padded 
horses where the running gears, brake 
rods, steps or running boards and the 
engine trusses are attached. The frames 
are then taken from the horses and put 
on test wheels which are utilized until 
after the succeeding road test, when they 
are exchanged for the permanent wheels 
that go with the finished car. After this, 
engine and transmission, radiator, gaso¬ 
line tank, steering device, battery and 
tool boxes, apron, oiler and spark coil go 
in, the wiring and brass trimming is done 
and lamp brackets are fitted. This com¬ 
pletes the chassis, and with the attaching 
of tonneau and seats, the hinging on of 
the hood and riveting of the mudguards, 


134 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


the automobile is ready for examination 
and road test. 

The test road is generally laid out so 
as to meet with all conditions of public 
highways and is sure to bring out any 
existing defects. If such develop, the 
testing expert returns the car for rectify¬ 
ing, and only after an entirely satisfac¬ 
tory trial is the car allowed to go to the 
Store Room or Shipping Department, 
whence it goes out into the world. 


CHAPTER XXI 

AUTOMOBILE ETIQUETTE 

GENERAL HINTS TO OWNER AND DRIVER. 

There is unquestionably a strong pre¬ 
judice against motorists in general, 
which, while sure to be overcome in due 
time, is to-day a factor never to be lost 
sight of by owner and driver. In order 
sooner to eliminate this prejudice, the 
following points should always be kept 
in view: 

1. Becpme well acquainted with the 
laws and regulations of your state and 
municipality relating to automobile traf¬ 
fic, and obey them rigidly. 

2. Don’t take intoxicants when you 
expect to go behind the steering wheel, 
or even when being driven by your 
chauffeur. Chance may force you to the 
driver’s seat, and liquor is the worst 
enemy of an automobile driver. In en¬ 
gaging a professional chauffeur give 
preference to a total abstainer; otherwise 
see that he is in perfectly sober condition 
when you want his services. 

3. See that your car does not emit 
too offensive an odor or too much smoke. 


135 


136 A. B. C. of Motoring 

With a little care this can be prevented, 
just as well as the excessive dripping of 
oil which especially damages the asphalt 
pavements. 

4. Don’t make too liberal use of the 
horn. It is annoying and often confus¬ 
ing. Use it when necessary. 

5. In driving in the city, always con¬ 
sider that you don’t own the road, and 
that other vehicles, cyclists and pedes¬ 
trians have the same rights as you. Never 
allow your attention to be diverted from 
the road ahead of you, and keep a sharp 
lookout at crossings, near crowds and es¬ 
pecially in streets where children are 
playing in the road or on the sidewalks. 
The latter are apt to run out into the 
street in the excitement of play. Don’t 
get out of patience if, in a spirit of mis¬ 
chief, they throw things at the car, or, 
apparently, try to cross in front of it. It 
is aggravating, but it is better to stop than 
to take chances. If something happens 
the public will be against you, no matter 
how innocent you are in the matter. 

6. In driving over country roads, use 
judgment as to speed. Never drive fast 
unless you can overlook the road for a 
considerable distance ahead of you, and 
unless it is absolutely free of obstructions 


A'utomobile Etiquette 137 

in the shape of man or beast. By no 
means exceed the speed allowed for the 
location. In meeting a horse-drawn 
vehicle remember that country horses 
are not usually broken to automobiles. 
Slow down in passing, especially if their 
driver gives a sign to that effect. If the 
animals appear much frightened, stop 
your engine until the vehicle has passed 
you. Be considerate as to animals on the 
road, and if you happen to inadvertently 
kill or maim one try to find its owner. 
Don’t run away. Car numbers are easily 
read, and it is much cheaper and more 
convenient to settle amicably on the spot 
than to be cited to court. Remember 
this maxim too in case of collisions where 
the damage extends only to material. 

7. In case of accident to human be¬ 
ings, resulting in injuries or fatalities, 
whether caused by your own carelessness 
or not, show kindness and utmost con¬ 
sideration. Act as a man should act. 
Don’t shirk responsibility. Give your 
name and address willingly to the inter¬ 
ested parties, but be careful to establish 
the responsibility for the accident, there 
and then, by witnesses if you are not at 
fault. In any case, show humanity, and 
drive the injured to where he can get 


138 A. B. C. of Motoring 

quickest medical aid. Consideration and 
kindness will always act as a mitigating 
circumstance when it comes to a jury 
trial. Brutality is a boomerang. 

8. Stop at the first sign given by a 
police official, and don’t get into a heated 
argument with him, even if you have the 
right on your side. A little politeness 
often saves trouble and fines. 

9. Carry insurance against damage to 
your car, as well as against financial loss 
resulting from damage suits of any nature 
arising from motor accidents. There are 
companies making a speciality of such 
insurance. Under no conditions, how¬ 
ever, allow the fact that you are insured 
to operate against due care in driving 
your car and the general observation of 
the hints given above. 


TYPES OF 

AMERICAN AND FOREIGN 
MOTOR CARS 





Limousine (Pierce Great Arrow). 
King of Belgium Type (Thomas), 














































































































Coupe (Cadillac). 

Opera Coach (Pierce Great Arrow). 
















. 

































Touring Car (Locomobile) 
Racing Car (Locomobile). 

























































Collapsible Landaulet (Packard). 
Royal Victoria (Columbia). 







































































































































































Buggy Type Runabout (Holsman). 
Four-Cylinder Runabout (Ford). 































* -I 





















































































































Babcock Electric 
Model No.3 


Babcock Electric Runabout. 
Doctor’s Runabout (Premier Air-cooled). 











































































' 











































































FOREIGN TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES 



Mercedes (German) 


Renault (French) 








































. 








' 




FOREIGN TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES — Continued. 



Napier (British). 


Panhard (French), 
















. 

L I 





















































































AUTOMOBILE LAWS OF THE U. S. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

Abbr., abbreviation; betw., between; certif., 
certificate; distr., district; H., hour; impris., im¬ 
prisonment ; INC., incorporated; incl., including; 
init., initials; intersect., intersections; Lie., li¬ 
cense; munic., municipality; M., miles; numb., 
number; pop., populated; provis., provision; reg- 
IST., registered; registr., registration; REqu., re¬ 
quired or requirement; res., or resid., residence or 
resident; suffic., sufficient; transf., transferable; 
temp., temporary; violat., violation; w., with. 


Alabama. Regist. w. Prob. Judge; 
Fee 25 cts. w. non-transf. certif; No 
numb, requ.; Non-res. same privileges; 
Speed per hour: 8 miles and 4 miles at 
.dams and causeways of not over 20 feet 
width; Penalties: 1. offense $20-100, 
subsequently $50-200 or 30 days to 6 
months impris. 

Arizona. No laws. 

Arkansas. No laws. 


157 



158 A. B. C. of Motoring 

California. Regist. Sec’y of State; 
Fee $2.00 w. cert, not transf.; Numbers 
3 inch high rear of car w. abbr. name of 
state not less than 1 inch high; 2 white 
lamps front w. car numb., 1 red rear 
light; Reg. numb, of own state for temp, 
stay of non-res.; Speed always reasonable 
—10 m. per h. in pop. distr., 15 m. in inc. 
munic., 20 m. elsewhere, 4 m. near and 
on dams, bridges, curves and sharp inch; 
Penalties for 1. offense not over $100, 
2d $50-100 or 30 days, subsequently $100 
-250 and 30 days. 

Colorado. No laws. 

Connecticut. Regist. Sec’y of State; 
Fee $1.00; Numbers 4 inches high w. 
init. of state front and rear of car; 15 
days per year free for non-res., but own 
state numb, and init. requ.; Speed always 
reasonable—12 m. per h. in cities, 15 m. 
in country; Penalties: 1. offense up to 
$200 or 30 days or both; 2d. offense up 
to $500 or 60 days or both; subsequently 
same. Other but speed violat. not over 
$50. 

Delaware. Regist. Sec’y of State; 
Fee $2.00; Number 3 inches high rear 
of car; 2 white lamps front, 1 red light 
w. number; Non-res. exempt for 48 h.; 
Speed always reasonable, to m. at sharp 


Automobile Laws of the U. S. 159 

curves and intersect, in open country, 8 
4-7 m. in cities, towns, etc., 20 m. else¬ 
where; Penalties: $100 or 30 days for 
illegal display of number; $50 or 20 days 
for racing and betting; not more than 
$100 or 30 days for other offenses. 

Dist. of Columbia. Qualification be¬ 
fore board of examiners; No fee; 3 inch 
number rear of car w. init. D. C. not less 
than 1 inch high, non-transf.; 2 front 
lamps, 1 rear showing red and white 
from i h. after sunset to 1 h. before sun¬ 
rise; Own state credentials suffic. for 60 
days for non-res.; Speed 4 m. rounding 
corners in Washington, 6 m. at crossings 
w. tracks, 12 m. in streets w. no tracks, 15 
m. in country; Penalties, $i.oo-$40 for 
each offense. 

Florida. Registr. w. Sec’y of State; 
Fee $2.00; Number 3 inch long and 2 
inch wide rear of car; Driver must carry 
certif. of registr. or permit; Two lamps 
betw. sunset and sunrise; Non-res. w. lie. 
from own state exempt for 30 days; 
Speed 4 m. at sharp curves, bridges, fills 
and intersect., otherwise reasonable; 
Penalties: Speed violat. 1. offense up to 
$ 100, 2d. not less than $50 or more than 
$100 or impris. to 30 days or both, 3d. 
offense not less than $100 nor more than 


160 A. B. C. of Motoring 

$250 or impris. up to 60 days. Other 
violations up to $100 or impris. to 10 
days or both. 

Idaho. No laws. 

Illinois. No state registr., consult 
local authorities as to fees, numbers, 
lamps, non-res. requirements; Speed 15 
m. except where local laws provide other¬ 
wise; Penalties: $25-200 or impris. up 
to 3 months or both. 

Indiana. Regist. w. Sec’y of State; 
Fee $1.00; Number 4 inch and abbrev. 
state name 2 inch high rear of car; Own 
state number suffic. for non-res.; Speed 
always reasonable, 8 m. in closely built 
parts of municipalities, 15 m. in other 
parts, 20 m. elsewhere; Penalties not to 
exceed $ 50 . 

Iowa. Regist. w. Sec’y of State; Fee 
$1.00; Number 3 inch and abbrev. state 
name 2 inch high rear of car; 1 lamp 
forward showing white and 1 rear lamp 
showing red light; Own state number 
suffic. for non-res.; Speed always reason¬ 
able, 10 m. in closely, 15 m. in thinly 
built sections, 20 m. in country; Penal¬ 
ties: 1. offense up to $25, 2d, $25-50 or 
30 days. 

Kansas. No state registr., consult 
local authorities as to fees, numbers and 


Automobile Laws of the U. S. 161 

non-res. provisions; Lamps w. white 
light from one h. after sunset to one h. 
before sunrise; Speed always reasonable, 
io m. in pop. districts, 20 m. elsewhere; 
Penalties not to exceed $100. 

Kentucky. No state registr., consult 
local authorities as to fees, numbers, and 
non-res. provisions; White lamp in front, 
red in rear when necessary between sun¬ 
set and sunrise; Speed always reasonable, 
6 m. at crossings, bridges, curves and 
inclines, 1 q m. elsewhere; Penalties $10 
100. 

Louisiana. No special laws. Consult 
local authorities. 

Maine. Registr. w. Sec’y of State; 
Fee $2.00; Number 4 inch and state 
name 1 inch high at front and rear of 
car; Lamp 1 h. after sunset to 1 h. before 
sunrise; Non-res. exempt on display of 
own state name and number in front and 
rear of car; Speed always reasonable, 8 
m. in cities and towns, except where 
more is allowed, 15 m. elsewhere; Penal¬ 
ties up to $50 or impris. to 10 days. 

Maryland. Regist. w. Secy, of 
State; Fee $1.00; Number 3 inch in con¬ 
spicuous place; 2 white lamps front and 
1 red light in rear; Non-res. must 
register; Speed 6 m. at sharp curves, 


162 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


intersections of cross roads in country or 
on highways through built-up parts of 
cities, elsewhere io m.; Penalties $25-50 
for speed, $20 for lamp ordinance and 
$50 or 30 days for number provision vio¬ 
lations. 

Massachusetts. Registr. and license 
through Mass. Highway Comm.; Fees 
$2.00 registr. and $2.00 license, 50 cts. 
renewal, private operator’s license indefi¬ 
nite, chauffeur’s good for 1 year, certif. 
to be carried in car; Numbers 4 inch 
high in front and rear; One white lamp 
on each side in front with register num¬ 
ber; Non-resid. exempt for 15 days, 
afterwards subject to law; Speed 10 m. 
in cities, 15 m. in country, 8 m. at curves 
and intersect., always reasonable; Penal¬ 
ties: 1. offense up to $25, 2d. up to $50, 
subsequent offenses within year not more 
than $100; for running car after revocal 
of license $100 or 10 days. 

Michigan. Seal and certif. from 
Sec’y of State; Fee $2.00; Conspicuous 
number 3 inch high and abbrev. or full 
name of state 1 inch high; 2 white lamps 
front and 1 red light rear; Own state 
number sufficient for non-resid. if laws 
are similar; Speed always reasonable, 8 
m. in business part of cities, 15 m. in other 


Automobile Laws of the U. S. 163 


parts, 25 m. elsewhere; Penalties: 1. 
offense up to $25 and costs or impris. to 
to days, 2d. up to $50 and costs or impris. 
to 30 days, subsequently up to $100 and 
costs or 30 days or both. 

Minnesota. License by state boiler 
inspector; Fee $2.00; Number 4 >4 inch 
high in rear; One lamp at least; No 
special requ. for non-resid.; Speed 4 m. 
at crossings, 8 m. in built-up parts, 25 m. 
elsewhere; No special penalties pro¬ 
vided, but general laws provide fines up 
to $100 or impris. to 3 months. 

Missouri. License from county clerk 
or license commissioner; Fee $2.00 per 
year; Number in conspicuous place; 2 
lamps w. 3 inch numbers in front; No 
special requ. for non-resid.; Speed 9 m.; 
Penalties $100-1,000 or 30 days to 6 
months, or both. 

Montana. No state provis. for 
registr.; Consult local authorities about 
fees, numbers, lamps and non-resid. pro¬ 
visions; Speed 8 m. within city and fire 
distr. limits, thickly settled or business 
parts of towns,20 m. elsewhere; Penal¬ 
ties not more than $100 or 60 days, or 
both. 

NEBRASKA. Seal from Sec’y of State; 
Fee $1.00; Number 3 inch and abbrev. 


164 A. B. C. of Motoring 

name of state 2 inch high rear of car; 
At least 1 white front lamp and 1 red 
rear light between sunset and sunrise; 
Own state number and initial sufficient 
for non-resid.; Speed always reasonable, 
10 m. in built-up parts of cities, towns 
and villages, 15 m. in other portions, 20 
m. elsewhere; Penalties for 1. offense up 
to $25, subsequently $25-50 or 30 days. 

New Hampshire. Regist. w. Sec’y 
of State; Fees $1.00 for annual operator’s 
license and $3.00 for registr., certificate 
always to be carried; 2 numbers 4 inch 
high front and rear w. abbrev. state 
name; 2 lamps w. 1 inch numbers; Non- 
resid. exempt, but subject to suspension 
by Sec’y of State; Speed 8 m. in business 
and compactly built parts of cities and 
towns, 20 m. elsewhere; Penalties: 1. 
offense up to $10 and costs, subsequently 
up to $50 and revocation of license; for 
operating after revocal up to $100 or 30 
days, or both. 

New Jersey. License from Sec’y of 
State; Fee $1.00 per car used; dealer’s 
license $10.00; 4 inch number in front 
and rear; 2 front lamps w. 1 inch num¬ 
bers and 1 red rear light between sunset 
and sunrise; Non-resid. must have 
license; Speed always reasonable, 20 m.; 


Automobile Laws of the U. S. 165 

Penalties: not more than $100 or 30 days 
for false number, $50 for no license, $15- 
50 for failure to display number, $50 for 
speeding; in default of payment impris. 
to 10 days; subsequent offense double 
penalty or up to 10 days in default of 
payment. 

New York. Seal by Sec’y of State; 
Fees $2.00 for chauffeurs, owners and 
manufacturers; renewals for chauffeurs 
and owners $1.00, for manufacturers 50 
cts. Certificate to be returned with sale 
of car; 3 inch number w. 1 inch init. 
letters of state rear of car; 2 front lamps 
w. 1 inch numbers and one red rear light; 
Own state number sufficient for non- 
resid.; Speed always reasonable, 10 m. 
in built-up sections, 15 m. where distance 
betw. houses is less than 100 feet, 20 m. 
in country, 4 m. at bridges, curves and 
steep inclines; Penalties: Violations of 
speed and local laws, false number, non¬ 
display of number and chauffeur’s registr. 
up to $100 for 1. offense, 2d. offense $50- 
100 or impris. to 30 days, or both; sub¬ 
sequently $100-250 and impris. up to 30 
days; violations of other provisions from 
$2^-100 or impris. up to 10 days, or both. 

North Carolina. No special laws. 
Board of Commissioners regulate speed 


166 A. B. C. of Motoring 

and use of all vehicles. Violations of 
any of these provisions $50.00 maximum 
or not to exceed 30 days imprisonment. 

N. Dakota. No state provis.; con¬ 
sult local authorities as to registr., fees, 
numbers and non-resid. provis.; One 
lamp requir. during hours of darkness; 
Speed 8 m. in cities, towns and villages, 
15 m. in country, 4 m. at crossings when 
occupied by persons; Penalties $5.00-50 
or 5-30 days, or both. 

Ohio. No state provision; consult 
local authorities about registr., fees, 
numbers and non-resident provis.; At 
least 1 white front lamp and 1 red light 
in rear from sunset to sunrise; Speed 
always reasonable, 8 m. in business and 
built-up parts of municipalities, 15 m. 
in other portions, 20 m. elsewhere. 
Penalties $5.00-50. 

Oregon. Registr. w. Sec’y of State; 
Fee $3.00; 3 inch number, preceded by 
“Ore” rear of car; At least 1 white 
front lamp with number and red rear 
light; Non-residents have same privil. as 
residents; Speed 8 m. in business and 
built-up parts of cities and other muni¬ 
cipalities, also in country when within 
100 yards of horse-drawn vehicles, 4 m. 
at occupied crossings, 24 m. in country. 


Automobile Laws of the U. S. 167 


Penalties: up to $25 for 1. offense, up 
to $$o for 2d. and up to $100 for subse¬ 
quent offenses. 

Pennsylvania. License from State 
Highway Dept.; Fee $3.00 per year; 5 
inch number in front and rear of car; 1 
white front lamp and red rear light, 
rear number to be illuminated; Non¬ 
residents same privileges as residents; 
Speed 10 m. in cities and townships, 20 
miles elsewhere; Penalties: first offense 
$10-25 or 10 days in case of non-payment, 
subsequently $25-100 or 30 days and 
revocal of license for 6 months. 

Rhode Island. Certif. from Sec’y 
of State, certif. must be carried in car; 
Fees $2.00 for owners, $10 for dealers; 
3 inch number in rear; Number of lamps 
as approved by Sec’y of State; Own state 
number sufficient for non-resid.; Speed 
within safety limit, motor to be stopped 
when necessary; Penalties up to $20 or 
3 months imprisonment for any viola¬ 
tion. 

South Carolina. No state provis.; 
consult local authorities as to fees, num¬ 
bers and non-resid. provis.; White lamp 
with red rear light at night or in fog; 
Speed always reasonable, 6 m. at bridges, 
descents, curves or intersections, other- 


J 68 A. B. C. of Motoring 

wise 15 ni. Penalties $10100 or impris. 
up to 30 days. 

^ South Dakota. Seal from Sec’y of 
State; Fee $1.00; 3 inch number and 2 
inch letters U S. D. in rear; 1 white front 
and 1 red rear light w. 1 inch numbers; 
Own state number sufficient for non- 
resid.; Speed always resonable, 10 m. in 
closely built-up parts of cities and towns, 
other parts 13 m., 20 miles elsewhere; 
Penalties; 1. offense up to $25, subse¬ 
quently $25-50 or impris. for 30 days. 

Tennessee. Certif. from Sec’y of 
State; Fees $2.00 for certificate and $1.00 
to county clerk for filing; 3 inch num¬ 
bers in front and rear. 

No lamp provision; Non-residents 
same rights as residents; Speed 20 m. 
with right of municipalities to lower* 
Penalties $25-100. 

Texas. No laws other than those re¬ 
lating to taxation. 

Utah. No laws. 

Vermont. Certif. from Sec’y of 
State; Fee $2.00 per year; 4 inch number 
conspicuously displayed; Lamps w. num¬ 
bers as prescr. by Sec’y of State; Non- 
resid. subject to speed and other regula¬ 
tions of Sec’y of State; Speed 10 m. in 
city, village, thickly settled and fire dis- 


Automobile Laws of the U. S. 169 

tricts, 6 m. at intersect, and curves, else¬ 
where 15 m.; Penalties: first offense up 
to $50, subsequently not more than $100 
or 10 days; $50-200 or 10 days, or both, 
for operating car after license has been 
revoked. 

Virginia. No state provisions; local 
authorities should be consulted as to 
registr., fees, numbers, lamps, non-resid. 
provis.; Speed 15 m. and 4 m. in passing 
a preceding car which has stopped; 
Penalties $10-100. 

Washington. Certif. from Sec’y of 
State; Fee $2.00 per year; 4 inch number 
with letters “Wn” in rear; At least 1 
white front and 1 red rear light w. num¬ 
ber on front light; Own state number 
sufficient for non-resid.; Speed always 
reasonable, 12 m. in business or thickly 
settled parts of city or village, 4 m. at 
crossings and 24 m. in country; Penal¬ 
ties up to $100. 

W. Virginia. Tags from State Au¬ 
ditor; Fee $1.00 per year; Numbers in 
front and rear of car; No provis. for 
lamps, speed and non-resid.; Penalties: 
$5.00-25 for destroying tag of others, 
$20-100 for driving without tag, $25- 
100 or impris. up to 3 months for operat¬ 
ing without license, 


17 ° A. B. C. of Motoring 

Wisconsin. Dupl. certif. (one to be 
carried in car) issued by Sec’y of State; 
Fees $1.00 for owner and $5.00 for 
general registr.; 3 inch number with 
letters “W” in rear of car; At least one 
front lamp; Own state number suffic. for 
non-resid.; Speed 12 m. within corp. 
limits of cities or villages, 25 m. in coun¬ 
try; Penalties $10-50. 

Wyoming. No laws. 


RACING RULES OF 
THE AMERICAN AUTOMOBILE 
ASSOCIATION. 

SANCTIONS. 

1. Sanctions . A person, association or 
club (hereinafter designated the Promo¬ 
ter) desiring to hold a race or series of 
races under the rules of the American 
Automobile Association, shall first ob¬ 
tain a sanction from the Chairman of the 
Racing Board. No announcement of 
such race or races shall be made until 
such sanction shall have been obtained. 

2. Applications. Application for 
such sanction shall be made to the Chair¬ 
man of the Racing Board and shall be 
accompanied by a fee of fifty dollars for 
non-members of the American Automo¬ 
bile Association, or ten dollars for mem¬ 
bers, and shall set forth the name and 
address of the Promoter; a schedule of 
the events and distances; the number and 
value of the prizes; the amount of the 
entry fees and details of the course. If 
the event is to be run on a public high¬ 
way the Board may require evidence of 
the permission of the proper legal au¬ 
thorities. 


17 


1 7 2 B. C. of Motoring 

3. Refusal. The Racing Board re¬ 
serves the right to refuse a sanction with¬ 
out assigning a reason therefor. 

4. Evidence of Precaution. Promo¬ 
ters, before sanctions will be granted, 
must, if requested by the Racing Board, 
demonstrate to the Board that every 
reasonable precaution to save harmless 
(in so far as possible) the general public 
and contestants has been taken. This 
includes laying dust, patrolling the 
course, closing highways, etc. 

5 * Changes. After a sanction has 
been granted no change may be made in 
any of the details required to be set forth 
in the application for same, except with 
the approval of the Racing Board. No 
change in the itinerary of a road race 
may be made without the approval of the 
Racing Board. In the event of such 
approved change, the promoter must give 
the widest possible publicity to the 
change and shall be charged with the 
duty of advising all those interested of 
such change. 

6. Transgression. No sanction shall 
be granted to a promoter who shall have 
previously transgressed the racing rules 
of the American Automobile Association 
or permitted their transgression at a 


Racing Rules 173 

meeting under his management, until he 
shall have been restored to good standing 
by formal action of the Racing Board. 

DUTIES OF PROMOTERS. 

7. Entry Blank. On receipt of a 
sanction the promoter shall prepare an 
entry blank, which shall show the details 
set forth in Rule 2; the date of the closing 
of entries; the address to which entries 
must be sent; and which shall require the 
entrant to supply the name of the opera¬ 
tor; the machine he will drive; the name 
of the maker; the motive power; the 
weight; the number of cylinders; the 
rated horse-power; and the date of mail¬ 
ing the entry. It shall bear upon its face 
the words, “Under the rules, and with the 
sanction of the Racing Board of the 
American Automobile Association.” 

8. Send Copies. A copy of the entry 
blank shall, immediately upon its issue, 
be forwarded to the Chairman of the 
Racing Board. A copy of these rules 
shall be sent by the Promoter to every 
entrant. 

9. Send Rules. Each driver shall he 
provided with a copy of these rules before 
competing in any event which may be 
promoted thereunder. 


174 A. B. C. of Motoring 

10. Send Records. The promoter 
shall forward to Secretary of the Rac¬ 
ing Board within forty-eight hours 
after the meet, a complete record of the 
meet, showing the winners of each event 
and the times made, which record shall 
be signed by the referee and timers. 

11. Programme Contain. The pro¬ 
gramme shall bear upon its face the 
words: “Under the rules and with the 
sanction of the Racing Board of the 
American Automobile Association,” and 
shall set forth the distance of each race; 
description of prizes and their value; a 
copy of the rule relative to the classifica¬ 
tion of automobiles for racing; the man¬ 
ner of starting; a list of the names of the 
officials strictly in accordance with the 
rules relating to same; and a list of 
the entrants and their numbers. 

ENTRIES. 

12. Entries. The acceptance of the 
entries shall be limited to persons who 
have not, since the first day of January, 
I 9 ° 3 ) taken part in any automobile race 
or hill climbing test not sanctioned by the 
Racing Board of the American Automo¬ 
bile Association; and who have never 
knowingly competed with a person not 


Racing Rules 


*75 


eligible under the rules and rulings of the 
Racing Board; who agree, by their sig¬ 
natures to the prescribed entry blank, to 
recognize the jurisdiction and decisions 
of the Racing Board of the American 
Automobile Association in racing matter; 
and who have not been debarred from 
competition in events over which the 
American Automobile Association or the 
governing bodies of other nations have 
jurisdiction. 

The act of competing in an unsanc¬ 
tioned meeting, or in an unsanctioned 
event, shall disqualify without action 
of the Racing Board, and such dis¬ 
qualification shall remain in effect until 
removed by formal action of the Racing 
Board. 

13. Car and Operator. An entry 
shall consist of a combination of operator 
and car, the latter being described at the 
time of the entry. No change of car 
shall be permitted after an entry has 
been filed, nor of operator without the 
consent of the Referee. 

14. Receipt and Acceptance of En¬ 
tries. No entry shall be accepted after 
midnight of the day set for the closing 
of entries, no entry shall be accepted 
unless accompanied by the entry fee and 


176 A. B. C. of Motoring 

all the details required to be set forth in 
the entry blank. Acceptance of an entry 
under other conditions shall be a suffi¬ 
cient reason for the refusal of a subse¬ 
quent sanction to the offending Promoter. 

15. False Entry. Should a false 
declaration be made intentionally by an 
entrant, the Racing Board may, in its 
discretion, disqualify the entry and pena¬ 
lize the entrant. 

16. More than One Car. Entrants, 
when declaring more than one car for an 
event, shall specify in detail each car 
declared at the time of entry. 

17. Assumed Name. Any person who 
desires to race under an assumed name 
must first register such name with the 
Racing Board, and shall continue to race 
under the name so registered until with¬ 
drawn by permission of the Racing 
Board. 

18. Amateur. An amateur driver is 
one who does not race for hire, or who is 
not actively engaged in the automobile 
trade, or who does not make his liveli¬ 
hood or any part of it as a result of his 
racing, or who has never been declared 
a professional by any sport governing 
body. 


Racing Rules 


l 77 


CLASSIFICATION. 

19. Automobile, Motor Car, Car . 
An automobile, motor car or car within 
the meaning of these rules, is a four- 
wheeled track or road vehicle propelled 
by self-contained mechanical means, and 
provided with suitable brakes, a differ¬ 
ential gear or its equivalent, and a reverse 
gear. 

20. Standard Classification. The 
standard classification of motor cars shall 
be by weight as follows: 

(A) Cars from 1432 to 2204 pounds. 

(B) Cars from 851 to 1432 pounds. 

(c) Cars from 551 to 851 pounds. 

(d) Cars from no to 551 pounds. 

21. Other Glassifications. In races 
where classifications other than those 
provided in Rule No. 20, are scheduled, 
such details and the details of classifica¬ 
tion must be submitted to the Racing 
Board for approval before the announce¬ 
ment of the event. 

22. Two Persons to be Carried. In 
Classes “A” and “B” cars must carry at 
least two persons seated side by side, 
whose per capita weight shall be not less 
than 132 pounds. (60 kilos.) 


178 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


By way of exception, in races on tracks 
and for record making, vehicles seated 
for two persons will be allowed to be oc¬ 
cupied by one person only, but the 
necessity for two persons is indispensable 
in races on roads. 

23. Weigh in Empty. The weight of 
the cars in the several classes shall be 
computed in an empty state, i. e., without 
operators, supplies, (fuels, lubricants, 
water or batteries), tools, spare parts, 
luggage, clothing, provisions, lamps, 
lamp brackets and horns. 

24. Magnetos. Cars supplied with 
magnetic generators, actuated by the 
motor, shall be allowed a maximum of 
15 pounds (7 kilos). 

25. Motor Exhausts. Motor exhausts 
shall not be directed toward the ground 
by reason of the dust created and the 
consequent danger to the following com¬ 
petitors. The direction of the exhaust 
will be checked and regulated before 
starting. 

26. Distinguishing Marks. Cars 
shall not be allowed to carry any distin¬ 
guishing mark other than the official 
designations provided by the promoters, 
which shall consist of a numeral placed 
on each the right and left side of each 


Racing Rules 179 

car, and where possible, on the front of 
the bonnet or hood. 

OFFICIALS. 

27. Referee . The principal officer of 
a race meet shall be a Referee, whose 
duty it shall be to exercise general super¬ 
vision over the affairs of the meeting and 
to act as the representative of the Racing 
Board. He shall, if necessary, assign 
the judges, timers, umpires, clerk of the 
course, and starter to their respective 
positions and instruct them as to the rules. 
He shall receive all protests and render 
decisions thereon, subject to appeal to 
the Racing Boad as provided for here¬ 
after in these rules. It shall be his duty 
to enforce and make a full report to the 
Chairman of the Racing Board of trans¬ 
gressions thereof either by promoters, 
contestants or officials. 

28. Judges. There shall be three 
Judges whose position shall be on, or at 
the edge of the course, two at one end 
and one at the opposite end of the tape. 
The numbers of the placed cars shall be 
taken, one each by the three Judges 
respectively. The decision of the Judges 
as to the order of finishing shall be final. 
The judging of the cars shall be deter- 


180 A. B. C. of Motoring 

mined by the instant of contact of the 
tires of the front wheels with the tape. 

29. Timers. There shall be three 
Timekeepers whose sole duty it shall be 
to accurately calculate, report and record 
the elapsed time of placed contestants. 
The Board may require evidence of the 
competency of timers. 

30. Starter. It shall be the duty of 
the Starter, after he has been advised by 
the Clerk of the Course that the contest¬ 
ants are ready, to ascertain that the 
Timers are ready and then give the signal 
to start by firing a pistol. He shall have 
absolute control of the competitors from 
the time they are reported by the Clerk 
of the Courses until the start has taken 
place. In the event of a moving start, 
the Starter alone shall have power to 
decide what is a fair start and may use a 
flag instead of a pistol as a signal. 

31. Clerk of the Course. There shall 
be a Clerk of the Course, with as many 
assistants as may be necessary. It shall 
be his duty to notify competitors, in due 
time, of the events in which they are 
entered; see to the arrival of the com¬ 
petitors at the starting point on time and 
to place them in their respective posi¬ 
tions. 


Racing Rules 181 

32. Umpires . There shall be two or 
more Umpires, whose duty it shall be to 
take positions assigned them by the Ref¬ 
eree, to note carefully the progress of 
the race and be prepared to report upon 
claims of unfair driving by contestants, 

33. Scorer . There shall be an official 
scorer, whose duty it shall be to keep a 
proper record of the time of each event, 
which shall be signed by each of the time¬ 
keepers. 

STARTING. 

34. Failure to Start. Any entrant to 
a race who fails to appear or who fails 
to start in the race, unless excused there¬ 
from by the Referee for a good and suffi¬ 
cient reason, shall be reported to the Rac¬ 
ing Board by the Referee, and by the 
Board subjected to discipline by sus¬ 
pension, disqualification or other penalty 
in such degree as in its judgment seems 
best to the Board. 

35. Method of Starting. Starts may 
be standing, moving or flying. Due no¬ 
tice of the method must be given on the 
programme, but in the event of failure to 
state the method a standing start shall 
prevail. 


182 A. B. C. of Motoring 

36. Standing Start. In a standing 
start the car must be stationary with its 
front wheels on the tape until given the 
word or signal to go. Time will be 
taken from the word or drop of the flag 
or the firing of a pistol. 

37. Moving Start. In a moving start 
cars must start at a point between two 
hundred and three hundred yards back 
of the tape. The pace from this point to 
the tape must be taken from the pole or 
inside car. 

38. Flying Start. In a flying start a 
car may start at any distance back of the 
tape and cross the tape at the highest pos¬ 
sible speed. This method of starting 
may be employed only where a single car 
is running for a record or in a time trial. 

39. Position. In all races the posi¬ 
tion of the contestants at the start shall 
be decided by lot. 

40. Delay. A contestant who fails 
to respond promptly to the call of the 
Clerk of the Course shall forfeit his right 
to his position and shall take the outside. 
1 here shall be no delay at the start on ac¬ 
count of absentees and no contestant shall 
be permitted to take a place in the line 
after the contestants have been reported 
to the Starter by the Clerk of the Course 


Racing Rules 


183 

41. Starting Cars. Starting of cars 
must be effected only by means of the 
motor, and without other means, as 
pushing by hand, lever, etc. This rule 
applies not only to the start at the begin¬ 
ning of the event, but to resting after 
any stoppage for any cause whatever, ex¬ 
cept as provided in Rule 54. 

42. Referees Decision. In the event 
of a protest relative to classification of 
a car or other matter which shall affect 
the right of a car to start, the Referee 
may, unless able to render an immediate 
decision, allow the car to start and ren¬ 
der his decision as soon after the event 
as may be possible. 

43. Demonstrate Ability. The ref¬ 
eree and the judges may, in their discre¬ 
tion, require the operator of any car to 
demonstrate his ability to properly han¬ 
dle the car in which he proposes to com¬ 
pete. 

44. Prohibit. The referee shall have 
absolute power to prohibit any car which 
he considers unsafe, unsuitable, or of im¬ 
proper construction to start in any event. 

HEATS. 

43. Heats. The Referee shall, in 
case there are a larger number of en- 


184 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


trants than can safely be started in one 
race, divide the contestants by lot into 
two or more heats, each as nearly equal 
in number as possible, and a final. In 
case a competitor is not able to start in 
the heat for which he was drawn, the 
Referee may transfer him to another 
heat at his discretion. The positions of 
the contestants in heats shall be accord¬ 
ing to the number drawn, the lowest 
number taking the inside with at least 
four feet intervening between the hubs. 

46. Final Heat. The winners of each 
heat and any second car that makes faster 
time than any heat winner, shall compete 
in the final trial. 

47. Dead Heat. In case of a dead 
heat the event shall be run again, unless 
the contestants agree, between themselves, 
as to the disposition of the prizes. 

In the event of a dead heat being run 
off, the same car and the same operator 
shall be obliged to compete in the final 
heat. 


« WaJhover. In the event of a 

walkover it shall be optional with the 
Referee whether the contestant be re¬ 
quired to go the whole or a part of the 
distance The Referee may impose a 
reasonable time limit. 


Racing Rules 


185 


TIMING. 

49. Timing Start and Finish. The 
time of the start and finish shall be de¬ 
termined by the instant of contact of the 
tires of the front wheels with a tape, laid 
across the course, 

50. Handicap. In a time handicap 
the time shall be taken from the start of 
the scratch contestant. 

51. Disagreement of Watches . In 
the event of disagreement of the watches, 
two agreeing, their time shall be official. 
Should all the watches disagree, the 
middle time shall be official. 

RULES OF THE COURSE. 

52. Course and Stand. No person 
other than the officials, contestants and 
one assistant for each contestant shall be 
allowed upon the course. Contestants 
and attendants must leave the course 
as soon as the event in which they are 
engaged has ended. 

53- Leaving Course. A competitor 
who leaves the course for any cause, must, 
if he desires to continue the race, start 
from the point at which he withdrew. 
A competitor who leaves the track or 
road, or is unable to continue, in a race 


186 A. B. C. of Motoring 

run in heats, shall not be allowed to com¬ 
pete in a subsequent heat of the same 
race. 

54. Cars not to be Pushed. Cars 
must not be pushed, except by their own 
crews. I his rule may be departed from 
under only the two following conditions: 

(a) On leaving the enclosure, when 
approaching the starting line, and 

(b) When necessary to get out of a 
bad place, not properly a part of the 
course, such as fording a stream, ditches, 
etc. 

55. Foul Driving. Intentional foul 
driving shall be punished by disqualifi¬ 
cation for all subsequent events at the 
meeting, as well as the event in which the 
foul practice occurs, and may be further 
penalized by the Racing Board by sus¬ 
pension not exceeding six months for the 
first offense and permanent suspension 
for a second offense. 

56. SPECIAL TRACK RULES. 

(a) Passing. It shall be the duty of 
the operator of the leading car to hold 
the inside as nearly as may be practicable. 
One contestant overtaking and passing 
another, must pass on the outside unless 
the car in front shall be so far from the 


Racing Rules 


187 


inside as to render it safe to pass on the 
inside. After having passed to the front 
a competitor shall not take the inside, or 
cross in front of the competitor passed, 
unless a lead of a full length of his car 
has been established, under penalty of 
disqualification. 

(b) Rail . All track races shall be 
run with the left hand of the operator 
toward the rail. 

(c) Passengers as Assistants. A com¬ 
petitor may, if he elects, carry one assist¬ 
ant as a passenger. After having been 
passed by the Clerk of the Course no car 
shall receive attention at the hands of 
any person other than the competitor and 
his assistant. 

57. SPECIAL ROAD RULES. 

(a) Rules of the Road. Operators 
must comply with the regulations for 
road traffic, which include: 

(1) Keep to the right when over¬ 
taken. 

(2) Keep to the left when overtak¬ 
ing. 

(3) Pass to the right when meeting 
a vehicle moving in the opposite direc¬ 
tion. 


188 A. B. C. of Motoring 

(b) Give Warning. Cars shall give 
warning of approach as often as may be 
necessary, by means of a horn, or trum- 
pet, or other instrument of like character, 
Bells or gongs may not be substituted. 

(c) Officials . The usual officials 
provided for in track racing events, viz,, 
referee, judges, timers, clerk of the 
course, starter, umpires and scorer, shall 
obtain in road races, with the exception 
that the number of timers may be in¬ 
creased with the demands of the event. 
All officials must be approved by the 
Racing Board before serving in their 
various capacities. 

(d) Umpires' Duties. Umpires shall 
e placed at each turn in the course or 

circuit. It shall be their duty to report 
to the Referee on all matters which seem 
to demand the same. It shall be their 
urther duty to know by observation as 
to whether or not an operator is hinder¬ 
ing or otherwise willfully obstructing 
another car, or obstructing the course 
contrary to these Rules. 

(e) Checkers’ Duties. Checkers. In 
addition to the officials already provided 
for there shall be appointed a requisite 
number of officials who shall be known 
as checkers. They shall be located at 


Racing Rules 


189 


points designated by the promoter. In 
addition to checking cars in their order 
of passing, it shall be their duty to en¬ 
force compliance with these Rules. 

(f) Time Check Box on Car. To fa¬ 
cilitate checking, every car competing 
shall be equipped with a box of uniform 
pattern* to receive the control vouchers 
provided. These boxes shall be supplied 
to each competitor by the promoter, he 
taking therefor a deposit of $5.00, which 
sum shall be returned to the competitor 
upon the return of the box to the pro¬ 
moter. These boxes shall be made se¬ 
curely fast to some part of the car, con¬ 
veniently available to the timers and 
checkers. 

(g) Times at Controls. In passing 
through controls the time of arrival shall 
be taken on the instant the front tire shall 
have stopped at a point of contact with 
the tape, and the time shall again be 
taken on the instant of starting from the 
tape at the exit of such controls. 

(h) Timers at Controls. The timer 
at the entrance of the control shall make 
a note of the instant the tires come to a 
rest at the tape, making note of the same 
on the card, deliver this card to the per¬ 
son conducting the contestant through the 


I 9 ° B. C. of Motoring 

control, who shall, upon his arrival at 
the exit, deliver the same to the second 
timer, who shall thereon make note of the 
time of departure. This card must be 
deposited in the competitor’s time check 
receptacle after the official record shall 
have been completed. 

(i ) Timer s Card. The timer or 
checker at the exit of control shall de¬ 
posit the voucher in the box in advance 
of the time of start, noting thereon the 
instant of start. 

(j) Pilots through Controls. Con¬ 
testants shall be preceded through con¬ 
trols either by a person mounted on a bi¬ 
cycle, or shall be accompanied by a per¬ 
son competent to estimate the speed of the 
car, in order that as nearly as possible the 
full limit of time set for passing through 
the control shall have been consumed. 

(k) Follow Pilots. Competitors 
must conform fully with the regulations 
established by the pilots mounted on bi¬ 
cycle, or be regulated by the instructions 
of the official who shall accompany him 
through controls. Competitors are 
warned that any deviation from this rule 
will result in penalizing them in the full 
time required for the control. 


Racing Rules 


191 

( l ) Failure to Pass Control. Any 
competitor who shall fail to pass through 
a control, either by neglect, or willfully, 
shall be disqualified from further com¬ 
petition in the event. 

(m) Two Cars from Control. If two 
vehicles shall come to the entrance of the 
control simultaneously, the checker or 
timer shall send them away together, 
from the limit of the control. 

(n) Repairs and Supplies in Con¬ 
trols. While a car is passing through a 
control no repairs shall be made and no 
supplies shall be taken on. 

(o) Reports of Officials to Referee. 
Immediately upon the close of the event, 
checkers and timers at all control sta¬ 
tions, umpires and checkers along the 
route of the race, shall at once prepare 
reports of all that transpired, and imme¬ 
diately transmit the same to the Referee. 

RECORDS. 

58. Records. No time shall be ac¬ 
cepted as an official record unless taken 
by at least three official Timers. 

59. Surveyor’s Certificate. Claims 
for records must be accompanied by a 
surveyor’s certificate as to the correctness 
of the distance run measured, if on the 


T 9 2 A. B. C. of Motoring 

track, three feet from the pole, and if on 
the road, at its center, together with evi¬ 
dence that the course is level. 

60. Intermediate Distances. In event 
of an attempt to lower the record for a 
given distance the acceptance of records 
at intermediate distances will not be al¬ 
lowed. 

61. Unofficial Times. Times made in 
events where classification other than 
that provided in Rule No. 20 shall ob¬ 
tain, shall not be recognized as official, 
although awards may be made on their 
results. 

PROTESTS, COMPLAINTS AND APPEALS. 

62. Protests and Complaints. Pro¬ 
tests or complaints of any kind must be 
made to the Referee within twenty-four 
hours after finish of the race involved. 
The protestant or complainant must ac¬ 
company his complaint or protest with 
a fee of $10.00, which shall be forfeited 
to the promoter if the protest be not sus¬ 
tained. A protest, once lodged, may be 
withdrawn only by consent of the Racing 
Board. 

63. Contestants’ and Owners’ Pro¬ 
tests. Contestants shall be allowed to 


Racing Rules 193 

complain in regard to foul driving, in¬ 
terference, or any other irregularity 
which shall have interfered with his 
rights under these Rules during progress 
of the event. 

Complaints or protests on other mat¬ 
ters, as to classification, eligibility to start, 
etc., may be made only by the owner or 
owners of competing car. 

64. Appeal to Racing Board. An 
appeal from the decision of the Referee 
may be made to the Racing Board by the 
owner of the car against which the de¬ 
cision was made. Such an appeal must 
be forwarded to the Board within ten 
days after the rendering of the decision 
and must set forth fully the facts of the 
case, accompanied by sworn statements 
or affidavits necessary to substantiate the 
claim, and a copy thereof sent at the same 
time to the Referee from whose decision 
the appeal is taken. A fee of $50.00 must 
be sent with the appeal, which fee will 
be returned if the decision appealed 
from be reversed. No member of the 
Racing Board may sit on the Board 
when it is considering an appeal from a 
decision which he has rendered, or in 
which he is personally interested. 


i 94 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


RESPONSIBILITY. 

65. Suits for Damages, Etc. All 
suits of a civil or penal character, of any 
kind whatsoever, arising from competi¬ 
tion in races held under these Rules, must 
be borne and resulting judgments satis¬ 
fied by the competitor responsible for the 
action. 

BETTING. 

66. No Betting Permitted. The mak¬ 
ing or laying of bets or wagers shall not 
be permitted, recognized or tolerated. 

DISQUALIFICATION. 

67. Disqualify. Disqualification for 
any infraction of the foregoing rules 
shall debar the offender from participa¬ 
tion in any and all of the awards for the 
event in which he competed. 

POWERS OF RACING BOARD. 

68. Powers of Racing Board. The 
Racing Board reserves the right to veto 
the appointment of any race official; to 
assign dates; to inquire into and deal in 
its judgment with all matters relating to 
racing, subject to the rules; to disqualify, 
either temporarily or permanently, per¬ 
sons guilty of infraction of these Rules; 
to determine who are and who are not 


Racing Rules 195 

eligible to compete; to interpret these 
Rules and to decide any issue not covered 
herein as it may consider advisable. 

69. Amendments. These Rules may 
be amended by the Board of Directors 
of the American Automobile Associa¬ 
tion. 


THE GORDON BENNETT CUP 
RULES. 

The Automobile Club of France is the 
guardian of a cup donated by Mr. Gor¬ 
don Bennett, which is intended as an in¬ 
ternational challenge trophy. It shall 
be competed for under the following 
conditions: 

I. Every foreign automobile club 
recognized by the Automobile Club of 
France is entitled to challenge for the 
cup and to dispute the possession of it 
with the Holding Club. 

II. The clubs recognized are: The 
Automobile Club of Belgium; the Auto¬ 
mobile Club of Austria; the Swiss Auto¬ 
mobile Club; the Automobile Club of 
Turin; the Automobile Club of Great 
Britain and Ireland; the Automobile 
Club of Germany, and the Automobile 
Club of America. 

Any club not mentioned in this list, de¬ 
siring to be added thereto, must be ac¬ 
cepted by a majority of the above-named 
clubs, providing this majority include 
the one or more clubs of the same country 
already recognized. Its name will then 

196 


Gordon Bentiet Cup Rules 197 

be added to the list and it will enjoy all 
the privileges of the recognized clubs. 

It is, nevertheless, well understood that 
on the motion of one club, duly carried, 
any club may be struck off this list. 

III. Every qualified club wishing to 
challenge the Holding Club for the cup 
shall notify the latter of its intention be¬ 
fore the first day of January in each year, 
by registered letter addressed to its presi¬ 
dent, and shall state the number of 
vehicles which will take part in the race. 
It shall also deposit with the Holding 
Club the sum of Three Thousand Francs. 
This sum shall be refunded if one of its 
representatives presents himself at the 
start. The President of the Automobile 
Club of France, even though his club 
does not take part in the race, shall al¬ 
ways be informed by registered letter. 

IV. Each club may be represented by 
one, two, or three vehicles, at its option, 
but the fact of its using but one or two 
shall not debar the other clubs from ex¬ 
ercising the right to use three. 

If two or more clubs of the same coun¬ 
try should be admitted to the list of rec¬ 
ognized clubs, it is well understood that 
that country can be represented by no 
more than three vehicles all told. 


198 A, B. C. of Motoring 

The clubs of the same country shall in 
such a case have to agree among them¬ 
selves which of their vehicles shall take 
part in the race. In case of a disagree¬ 
ment, the vehicles shall be chosen in the 
order of entry. 

V. The cup may be competed for 
every year between the fifteenth day of 
May and the fifteenth day of August. 
The exact date shall be determined by 
mutual agreement of the interested clubs 
before the first day of February in every 
year. 

VI. In the case of the Holding Club 
receiving challenges from several clubs 
in due time, there shall be but one race 
wherein the challenging clubs and the 
Holding Club shall be represented by 
not more than three vehicles each. 

VII. Vehicles qualified to compete 
must conform to the definition of the 
vehicle, as given in the Racing Rules of 
the Automobile Club of France, to wit: 

The carriage shall weigh at least 400 
Kilos and not more than 1,000 Kilos, and 
shall carry at least two passengers, side 
by side, of an average minimum weight 
of sixty Kilos each, it being understood 
that in case the average weight of the 
passenger should not amount to sixty 


Gordon Bennet Cup Rules 199 

Kilos, the balance shall be made up by 
ballast. 

The carriage shall be weighed empty. 
By empty is meant without passengers or 
supplies (coal, petroleum, water, accu¬ 
mulators) and without tools or extra 
pieces, or baggage, dress, or provisions. 

Carriages which generate the neces¬ 
sary energy for lighting purposes from 
a mechanical device run by their motors 
shall be given an allowance of seven 
Kilos. The weight of the lanterns and 
horns is not comprised in the weight of 
the vehicles, but only that of the lantern 
holders. 

VIII. The carriages in each and 
every one of their parts shall be entirely 
constructed in the country of the clubs 
which they represent. 

IX. The carriages shall be operated 
by drivers appointed by the competing 
clubs. Their two seats shall be occupied 
during the entire duration of the race. 

X. A commission shall act for the en¬ 
forcement of these rules. Each compet¬ 
ing club shall nominate a delegate. Mr. 
Gordon Bennett shall always be an ex- 
officio member of this commission. The 
Automobile Club of France, even though 
it does not take part in the race, shall also 


200 


A , B. C. of Motoring 

ex-officio be represented by a delegate 
in the commission. 

The delegates shall name outside of 
their own number a president, who, in 
case of a tie vote, shall cast the deciding 
ballot. If the delegates should not be 
able to agree upon the choice of a presi¬ 
dent, then he shall be appointed ex officio 
by Mr. Gordon Bennett, or in his default, 
hy the President of the Automobile 
Club of France. The commission shall 
appoint a starter, an umpire at the finish, 
and timekeepers. They shall not be 
bound to select such officers from among 
their own number. 

The commission is charged with the 
duty of enforcing strictly these rules and 
of passing upon and deciding all inci¬ 
dents which may occur. The race shall 
be confirmed by this commission, 

XI. The race shall be held on the 
road, in a single stage, of a distance not 
less than 550 kilometers, and not more 
than 650 kilometers. This distance may 
be taken from one city to another, or may 
be divided into several round trips, each 
partial trip to be not less than 12c kilo¬ 
meters. 

The Holding Club shall choose the 
route; it shall make the same known in 


201 


Gordon Bennet Cup Rules 

an exact and detailed manner by regis¬ 
tered mail to the Challenging Clubs at 
least three months before the date fixed 
for the race. 

If, after such notification, a change of 
itinerary should be made, the same shall 
be communicated at once by registered 
mail to the competing clubs. No such 
change shall be permitted except in case 
of absolute necessity and only after re¬ 
ceiving the approval of the commission 
provided for by Article X hereof. 

XII. The race shall be run in the 
country where the cup is held. The Hold¬ 
ing Club, however, shall always have the 
right to run the race in France. 

XIII. Starting shall be at intervals 
of two minutes. The order shall be as 
follows: First a carriage of the team of 
the Holding Club; then a carriage of 
each of the teams of the contesting clubs, 
beginning with the club whose challenge 
was first received; then the second car¬ 
riage of the Holding Club, followed in 
the same order by the second carriages 
of the other clubs. Finally the third car¬ 
riages in the same order. 

XIV. The carriage which Shall cover 
the distance in the shortest time shall be 
declared the winner, and shall win the 


202 A. B. C. of Motoring 

cup for its club, even though it be the 
only one of its team to finish the course. 

XV. In case of a dead-heat between 
the Holding Club and one of the Chal¬ 
lenging Clubs, the Holding Club shall 
keep the cup. 

XVI. In case of a dead-heat between 
two challenging clubs for the first place, 
they shall race over again, under these 
rules, within a period of two months, it 
being understood that the end of such 
period may be later than provided for 
by Article V hereof. 

In case the two clubs should not be 
able to agree for the choice of route, they 
shall draw lots. 

Should one of the clubs refuse to run 
again, the other club shall ipso facto be¬ 
come the holder of the cup. 

XVII. Within fifteen days after the 

confirmation of the race, the cup shall be 
handed over to the custody of the winner. 
In case of a dead-heat and pending the 
running off of the same, the cup shall 
remain in the custody of the Holding 
Club. * 

XVIII. If one of the challenging 
clubs should be alone represented at the 
start, it shall cover the whole course 
within a maximum time to be fixed by 


Gordon Bennet Cup Rules 203 

the commission provided for by Article 
X hereof. A failure to do so shall en- 
title the Holding Club to keep the cup. 

XIX. It is well understood that no 
club shall ever become the owner of the 
cup; it may only be the holder thereof 
subject to these rules. 

XX. In case the Holding Club should 
cease to exist, the cup shall be handed 
over to Mr. Gordon Bennett, or in his 
default, to the Automobile Club of 
France. 

XXI. The races for the cup, whether 
they take place in France or in another 
country, shall always be subject to the 
Racing Rules of the Automobile Club 
of France. 

XXII. The expenses for the trans¬ 
portation of the carriages and of their 
equipments, for combustibles, etc., shall 
be borne by the owners of the vehicles or 
by the clubs which they represent. 

XXIII. The traveling expenses of 
the members of the commission provided 
for by Article X hereof shall be borne by 
the clubs which they represent. 

The expenses for the organization of 
the race itself (compensation and travel¬ 
ing expenses of timekeepers, posters, tips 
along the course, etc.) shall be disbursed 


204 B. C. of Motoring 

by the Holding Club. After the race 
they shall be divided equally between the 
Holding Club and the challenging clubs. 
It is agreed that the sums due from the 
challenging clubs which do not take part 
in the race (and which thereby have for¬ 
feited to the Holding Club the Three 
Thousand Francs named in Article III 
hereof) shall be paid by the Holding 
Club. 

XXIV. All clubs whether holding 
the cup or challenging for it, thereby 
agree absolutely to conform strictly to 
all articles of these rules and in cases not 
herein provided for, to conform to all 
the articles of the Road Racing Rules of 
the Automobile Club of France. 


THE VANDERBILT CUP RULES. 

First. The cup shall be known as 
“The William K. Vanderbilt, Jr. Cup.” 

Second. The cup is to be competed 
for annually through the American Au¬ 
tomobile Association or its successor. 

Third. The distance of the race is to 
be not less than 250 miles nor more 
than 300 miles. The course must be over 
a regularly used highway and the compe¬ 
tition is under no circumstances to be 
held on a track. 

Fourth. Challenges must be filed be¬ 
fore March 15 of each year, entries clos¬ 
ing on that date. No postponements on 
account of weather conditions to take 
place after the date of the race has been 
settled on by mutual agreement between 
the holding and the challenging club. 

Fifth. Competition shall be allowed 
only to clubs that are recognized by or 
affiliated with the American Automobile 
Association, and to clubs recognized by 
or affiliated with the Automobile Club of 
France. 

Sixth. Not more than ten cars shall 
represent any one country. 


205 


206 


A. B. C. of Motoring 

Seventh. During 1904 and 1905, the 
first two years after the establishment of 
the race, the contest must be held in the 
United States. Subsequent to 1905 con¬ 
tests may be held within the country hold¬ 
ing the cup. 

Eight. Challenge fees must be ac¬ 
companied by a fee of $500 for each car 
entered. In the event of non-appear¬ 
ance, or failure to start, the entire fee of 
$500 shall be forfeited to the holding 
club. 

Ninth. The annual contests are to be 
governed by the Road Racing Rules of 
the American Automobile Association 
(when held in the United States) and 
the Road Racing Rules of the Automo¬ 
bile Club of France (when held within a 
foreign country). 

Tenth. Each contestant, when chal¬ 
lenging, assumes (a) all expenses inci¬ 
dental to his participation and (b) all li¬ 
ability for criminal or civil suits for dam¬ 
ages caused by him. 

Eleventh. When the contest is held 
within the United States, the American 
Automobile Association shall: 

1. Select and name the course to be 
covered. 


Vanderbilt Cup Rules 207 

2. Secure the necessary legislation or 
local government consent. 

3. Assume all expenses incidental to 
the above, and of all officials, control sta¬ 
tions, marking the course, etc., and take 
in return all forfeited fees and such por¬ 
tion of the entrance fee as is not already 
provided for. 

4. Name the first, second, third and 
each succeeding car in the order of fin¬ 
ishing, together with their times. 

5. Have the course thoroughly po¬ 
liced, turns suitably indicated and danger 
points warned. 

6. Appoint all officials with their 
credentials. 

7. Control all neutral zones. 

Twelfth. When the contest is held 

within a foreign country, the Automo¬ 
bile Club of France shall be charged 
with the foregoing duties. 

Thirteenth. Turns shall be indicated 
as follows: 

Right. Red banner, right side of 
road, hundred yards before turn is 
reached. A second red banner on near 
right side of corner. 

Left. Same as above, except that ban¬ 
ners should be blue. 


208 A. B. C. of Motoring 

Fourteenth. Straight-ahead intersec¬ 
tions should be marked with white ban¬ 
ners placed as above. 

Straight-ahead junctions: two white 
banners placed as above. 

Railroad crossings: Green banner 
placed one hundred yards before. 

Sharp or dangerous declines: Yellow 
banner one hundred yards before. 

Fifteenth. Neutral zones are to be in¬ 
dicated by black streamers stretched 
across highways from a fixed point with 
the number of the zone indicated by white 
letters; streamers to be three feet by ten 
feet; letters at least 18 inches high by 6 
inches wide. Inscription to read “Neu¬ 
tral.” 

Sixteenth. Controls shall be indicated 
by white streamers, similarly placed, of 
like dimensions, with the word “Control” 
and the number of said control consecu¬ 
tively arranged in black; all letters and 
figures to be not less than six inches in 
width and eighteen inches in height. 

Seventeenth. All contests shall be 
governed by a commission composed of 
the following: The racing board of the 
American Automobile Association, the 
donor of the cup, Mr. William K. Van¬ 
derbilt, Jr., and one member of the Auto- 


209 


Vanderbilt Cup Rules 

mobile Club of Prance, to be named by 
the president of the A. C. F. This com¬ 
mission to serve whenever the contest 
takes place in the United States. Dur¬ 
ing such years when the contest is held 
on foreign soil the commission shall be 
composed as follows: The donor, Mr. 
William K. Vanderbilt, Jr., one member 
of the racing board of the American Au¬ 
tomobile Association and the sports com¬ 
mittee (or racing committee) of the Au¬ 
tomobile Club of France. 

Eighteenth. Competing cars must 
carry a distinguishing number arranged 
consecutively and drawn by lot after the 
date of the closing of entries. The num¬ 
ber so drawn shall indicate the order of 
starting. 

Nineteenth. There shall be no restric¬ 
tion as to the weight of competing cars, 
except that they must weigh between 881 
and 2,204 pounds and carry two passen¬ 
gers, seated side by side, whose weight 
must be at least 132 pounds each. 

Twentieth. Cars must be weighed in 
by official weighers on the day preceding 
the race and equipment noted for check¬ 
ing when appearing at the starting line. 

Twenty-first. Cars must start in the 
order of drawing at intervals of 60 sec- 


210 A. B, C. of Motoring 

onds. Time of each car to be taken at 
the time fixed for its departure. Failure 
of the car to be present at that moment 
will cause it to lose as much time as 
elapses from the time of the given start 
until the moment it crosses the line. 

Twenty-second. During the contests 
of 1904 and 1905 the first car will be 
started at daylight or as soon after as 
the commission deem it safe. 


THE CHARLES J. GLIDDEN 
TOURING TROPHY—ARTI¬ 
CLES OF DEED OF GIFT. 

First. The trophy shall be known as 
“The Charles J. Glidden Touring Tro¬ 
phy.” 

Second. The cup shall be competed 
for annually, beginning with the year 
T 9°5> by members of any American au¬ 
tomobile club affiliated with the Ameri¬ 
can Automobile Association, or of any 
club in the world recognized by it. The 
club of which the winner is a member 
shall have the custody of the trophy until 
it is won by another, and shall give to 
the American Automobile Association, 
or its successor, a satisfactory bond, with 
sureties, in the sum of three thousand 
($3,000.00) dollars for such custody. 

Third. The distance to be driven in 
competition shall not be less than one 
thousand miles, nor less than five hun¬ 
dred miles weekly, and shall be over reg¬ 
ularly used highways in the country 
where the holding club is located, except 
in the years 1905, 1906 and 1907, when 
the contest shall be held in either the 
United States or Canada, or both. 


211 


2i2 A. B. C. of Motoring 

Fourth. Each 1905 entry must be ac¬ 
companied by a fee of $50.00. In event 
of failure to start, the entry fee shall be 
forfeited. 

Fifth. The car shall be driven by the 
owner or a driver approved by the com¬ 
mittee, the owner being a passenger in 
the car. 

Sixth. All other rules governing the 
contest shall be fixed by a committee of 
seven, consisting of the president of the 
American Automobile Association (who 
shall be chairman), the donor, and the 
presidents of the Automobile Club of 
America, the Automobile Club of Great 
Britain and Ireland, the Automobile 
Club of France, the Deutscher Automo- 
bil Club, and the president of an auto¬ 
mobile club in Canada to be recognized 
by the American Automobile Associa¬ 
tion, or representatives selected by the 
above-named persons. The chairman 
and two members of the committee shall 
constitute a quorum. 


FRONTIER REGULATIONS FOR 
FOREIGN AUTOMOBILE 
TRAVEL. 

AUSTRIA- H UNGARY. 

The duty on automobiles and motor 
cycles must be deposited and a receipt 
taken at the time they enter the country. 
The money will be repaid to the traveler 
on his recrossing the frontier with the 
machine if the receipt is presented to the 
customs authorities. The receipt is valid 
for two months and may in certain cases 
be extended, but not beyond December 
31. of the year of issue. 

BELGIUM. 

The duty is 12 per cent, ad valorem, 
paid on entry; a receipt valid for a year 
is given and money returned on re-ex¬ 
portation. 

CANADA. 

The duty is 35 per cent, ad valorem. 
For temporary importation of an auto¬ 
mobile, a bond for twice the amount of 
duty and a cash deposit of $25.00 is ex¬ 
acted. These are released, against sur- 


213 


214 A. B. C. of Motoring 

render of certificate, on taking the car 
out of Canada. 

DENMARK. 

No duty' is collected on automobiles 
for traveling purposes and as a means of 
transportation. A simple declaration of 
the traveler that the entry is temporary 
is sufficient. 


ENGLAND. 

Automobiles in condition for use are 
duty free. 1 here are no special requir- 
ments. 


FRANCE. 

On entry of automobiles into France 
a guaranty must be deposited, viz., 50 
francs ($9.65) for 100 kilograms (220 
pounds) if the vehicle weighs more than 
125 kilograms (275 pounds), and 120 
francs ($23.16) if it weighs less than 125 
kilograms. The customs receipt is good 
for six months, and the amount will be 
lepaid to the traveler on his leaving the 
country. 


GERMANY. 

Automobiles and cycles are identified 
at the last custom-house before leaving 


Frontier Regulations 215 

German soil, so that there may be no ad¬ 
ditional proceedings on their re-entering 
the country. On foreign automobiles 
the duty is 150 marks ($35.70) each. 
The automobile is provided with a lead 
seal. The amount will be repaid if the 
receipt is presented at the custom-house 
when the machine is taken out of the 
country. 

GREECE. 

Besides a non-returnable fee of a few 
drachmas (1 drachma—19.3 cents) the 
duty on automobiles is calculated accord¬ 
ing to a special tariff. When the vehicle 
leaves the country the duty is repaid, but 
5 drachmas (97 cents) for expenses and 
an additional payment are deducted if it 
does not repass the same custom-house as 
on entering. 

ITALY. 

Automobiles weighing up to 500 kilo¬ 
grams pay a duty of 200 francs; to 1,000 
kilograms, 400 francs; and over 1,000 
kilograms, 600 francs. The deposit re¬ 
ceipt is valid for six months, but the 
period may be extended to one year 
through a written application made be¬ 
fore expiration of the six months. The 


216 A. B. C. of Motoring 

money will be refunded to the traveler 
on leaving the country. 

LUXEMBOURG. 

Automobiles are duty free if in con¬ 
dition for use on entering from Ger¬ 
many, as Luxembourg belongs to the 
German Customs Union. Otherwise the 
duty is 150 marks ($35.70). The duty 
will be refunded when the traveler leaves 
the country on condition that he has given 
a notice containing a description of the 
automobile and place of entering and 
leaving the country to the custom-house 
in Luxembourg ten days before his entry. 

MEXICO. 

Duty on automobiles is computed by 
weight. First 250 kilograms net pay 60 
cents; 250—750 kilograms 50 cents; and 
over 750 kilograms, 40 cents per kilo¬ 
gram. A cash deposit for amount of 
duty is probably accepted from tourists 
and returned against surrender of certi¬ 
ficate when leaving the country. 

NETHERLANDS. 

Automobiles are free of duty if used 
tor traveling, but the frontier customs 


Frontier Regulations 217 

official has discretionary authority, as a 
matter of precaution, to demand" a de¬ 
posit, Which may not exceed 5 per cent, 
of the value. The receipt is valid for 
one year, and the duty will be refunded 
on presentation to any frontier customs 
official by the traveler on recrossing the 
border with the vehicle. 

NORWAY. 

Automobiles are free of duty as a 
means of traveling. The traveler must 
make written declaration that the vehicle 
is for the purpose of travel and is being 
entered for temporary sojourn only. 

PORTUGAL. 

Duties are established for particular 
cases. Deposit will be refunded when 
machine is taken from the country. 
Notice by letter or telegram should be 
given to the frontier customs official con¬ 
cerned. 


ROUMANIA. 

Duties on vehicles are according to a 
special tariff, Deposit will be refunded 


2 18 


A . Z?. C. of Motoring 


when machine is taken from the country. 
Previous notice is advisable. 

RUSSIA. 

Vehicles can cross the frontier only by 
special permission of the minister of 
finance obtained by written request. The 
duty for a two-seated vehicle is 90 rubles 
($46.35) in gold and 20 per cent, extra 
for coach and trimmings; for a four- 
seated or larger vehicle the duty is 132 
rubles ($67.98) in gold and 20 per cent, 
extra. Duty on the motor is additional, 
according to a special tariff. There are 
many requirments to be fulfilled. Duty 
will be refunded to traveler in two to ten 
months, when he leaves the country with 
the machine. 


SPAIN. 

A duty of 18.50 pesetas ($3.57) is 
levied per 100 kilograms (220 pounds) 
for motors, and for vehicles according to 
form, varying from 350 pesetas ($67.55) 
to 1,000 pesetas ($193). The deposit 
receipt must be duly confirmed by the 
frontier customs official where machine 
is taken out of the country before presen- 


Frontier Regulations 2 t 9 

tation at the custom-house first passed on 
entering the country in order to have 
deposit refunded. 

SWEDEN. 

A duty of 15 per cent, of the value of 
the vehicle is required to be deposited, 
to be refunded when the machine is taken 
out of the country. Under some cir¬ 
cumstances expenses may amount to 5.5 
crowns ($1.47). 

SWITZERLAND. 

A free passport of admission for six 
months is granted for automobiles with 
lead seal attached. Otherwise the rates 
of duty are 20 francs ($3.86) for 100 
kilograms (220 pounds) and 4 francs (77 
cents) for 100 kilograms of the motor. 

TURKEY. 

A duty of 8 per cent, is collected on 
vehicles. Two per cent, will be refunded 
to traveler when his machine is taken out 
of the country. An excessively high 
assessment should be guarded against. 

It is sometimes necessary, and always 


220 A, B . C. of Motoring 

advisable, to have an authentic descrip¬ 
tion of the automobile, weight, number, 
etc., signed or stamped by the manufac¬ 
turer, to be presented at the frontier or 
elsewhere. Previous notice to customs 
officials as to entering or leaving a coun¬ 
try will be the means of facilitating 
matters in many cases. 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


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1907 

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1909 

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RACE STATISTICS 

Short records of the winners in the prominent International race events. 

GLIDDEN TOUR 

Distance 

Tear miles Winner Car Country Course 


A. B. G. of Motoring 


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RACE STATISTICS 


224 


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Lambert, A. Motobloc Regina-Dixi Roy 

Lambert, Prosper Panhard-Levassor Rene I.egros Svelte 

Milde Peugeot Renault Tony Huber 

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Mors Radia Rochet-Schneider Westinghouse 


242 A . B. C. of Motoring 


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jwinehart Swineh. Clinch. Tire & Rubber Co. Akron, 


2 45 


A. B. C. of Motoring 

LIST OF AUTOMOBILE TRADE PAPERS. 
AMERICAN 

Automobile, Flatiron Bldg., New York—weekly. 
Automobile Magazine, 136 Liberty St., New York- 
monthly. 

Automobile Topics, Times Bldg., New York—weekly. 
Cycle & Autom. Trade Journal, 1213 Filbert St., Phila¬ 
delphia—monthly. 

Horseless Age, 9-15 Murray St., New York—monthly. 
Motor, 1789 Broadway, New York—monthly. 

Motor Age, 309 Michigan Ave., Chicago—weekly. 
Motor Field, 1748 Stout St., Denver, Col.—monthly. 
Motor News, 90 Griswold St., Detroit, Mich.—monthly. 
Motor Wav, 315 Dearborn St, Chicago—weekly. 

Motor World, 154 Nassau St., New York—weekly. 

Tire and Motor, 35 W. 21. St, New York—monthly. 

FOREIGN. 

Canada. 

Canadian Motor, Toronto, Can.—monthly. 


England. 

Autocar, 20 Tudor St., London—weekly. 

Automobile Club Journal, 18 Down St./Picadilly, London 
—weekly. 

Automobile Journal, 44 St. Martin's Lane, London- 
weekly. 

Car, 17 Shaftesbury Ave., London—weekly. 

Commercial Motor, 7-15 Roseberry Ave., London—week¬ 
ly* 

Industrial Motor Review, 89 Fleet St., London—weekly. 

Motor, 7-15 Roseberry Ave., London—weekly. 

Motor Car Journal, 27-33 Charing Cross Road, Lon¬ 
don—weekly. 

Motor Car Magazine, 17 Shaftesbury Ave., London— 
monthly. 

Motor News, 516 Birkbeck Bank Bldgs., London—weekly. 

Motor Review, 27 Chancery Lane, London—monthly. 

Motoring Illustrated, 9 Arundel St., Strand, London— 
weekly. 

Motorist and Traveler, 12 Henrietta St., Covent Garden, 
London—weekly. 

Motor World, 73 Dunlop St., Glasgow—weekly. 

Motor Traction, 20 Tudor St. ; London—weekly. 


246 


A. B. C. of Motoring 

France. 

L’Automobile, 7 Rue St. Benoit, Paris—weekly. 

La Vie Automobile, 49 Quai des Grandes Augustines 
Paris—weekly. 

L’Auto, 10 Rue du Faubourg Montmartre, Paris—daily. 

La France Automobile, 68 Ave. de la Grande Armee 
Paris—weekly. 

La Locomotion Automobile, 15 Rue Bouchut, Paris- 
weekly. 

Les Sports, 20 Rue St. Marc, Paris—daily. 

Omnia, 20 Rue Duret, Paris—weekly. 

Germany. 

Allgemeine Automobil Zeitung, Kontorhaus, Muenchen— 
weekly. 

Automobil Welt, Lindenstrasse 16-17, Berlin—weekly. 

Der Motorwagen, Kurfuerstendamm 248, Berlin—semi¬ 
monthly. 

Belgium. 

L Automobile Beige, 50 Rue Gretry, Brussels—weekly. 

Italy. 

L’Automobile, 2 Via S. Simpliciano, Milan—weekly. 

Austria. 

Allgemeine Automobil Zeitung, 5 Fleischmarkt, Vien¬ 
na—weekly. 


Speed Table 


247 


AVERAGE SPEED TABLE. 

Presenting the calculated speed per hour against the 
time occupied in running a mile. 


M. S.—minutes Sc seconds; M. Y.—Miles & Yards. 


M. S. 

M. Y. 

M. S. 

M. Y. 

5.0 

12.0 

1.18 

46.271 

4.50 

12.728 

1.16 

47.648 

4.40 

12.1509 

1.14 

48.1142 

4-30 

13487 

1.12 

50.0 

4.20 

13-1489 

1.10 

51-754 

4.10 

14.704 

I.08 

52.1656 

4.0 

15.0 

1.06 

54.960 

3 -SO 

15.1148 

1.04 

56.440 

340 

16.640 

1.02 

58.113 

3-30 

17.251 

1.0 

60.0 

3.20 

18.0 

0.59 

61.30 

3.10 

18.1667 

0.58 

62.121 

3 -o 

20.0 

0.57 

63.278 

2.50 

21.312 

0.56 

64.503 

2.40 

22.880 

0.55 

65.8 

2.30 

24.0 

0.54 

66.1173 

2.20 

25.1257 

0.53 

67.1627 

2.10 

27.1218 

0.52 

69.406 

2.0 

30.0 

0.51 

70.1035 

1.50 

32.1280 

0.50 

72.0 

1.48 

33.587 

0.49 

73.826 

1.46 

33-1694 

0.48 

75.0 

1-44 

34.1083 

0.47 

76.1049 

1.42 

35 - 5 i 8 

0.46 

78.459 

1.40 

36.0 

0.45 

80.0 

1.38 

36.1298 

0.44 

81.1440 

1.36 

37.880 

o -43 

83.1678 

i -34 

38.524 

0.42 

85.1257 

1.32 

39158 

0.41 

87.1270 

1.30 

40.0 

0.40 

90.0 

1.28 

40.1660 

o -39 

92.542 

1.26 

41.1514 

0.38 

94.1297 

1.24 

42.1509 

o -37 

97.523 

1.22 

43.1588 

0.36 

100.0 

1.20 

45.0 

0-35 

102.1508 


248 


A. B. C. of Motoring 


METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

Gram —15,432 grains. 

Decagram (10 grains)—0.3527 oz. 

Hectogram (100 grains)—3.5274 oz. 

Kilogram (1,000 grains)—2.2046 lbs. 

Quintal (100 kilo)—220.46 lbs. 

Millier or tonne-au (ton)—2204.6 lbs. 

Dry Measures. 

Liter—0.908 qt. 

Decaliter (10 liter)—9.08 qts. 

Hectoliter (100 liter)—2.838 bushels. 

Liquid Measures. 

Liter—1.0567 qts. 

Decaliter (10 liter)—2.6418 gals. 

Hectoliter (100 liter)—26.417 gals. 

Measures of Length. 
Millimeter—0.0394 in - 
Centimeter—0.3937 in. 

Decimeter—3.937 in. 

Meter—39.37 in. 

Decameter—393.7 in. 

Hectometer—328’ 1”. 

Kilometer—0.62137 miles (3280’ 10”.) 

Surface Measures. 

Centare (1 sq. m.) 1500 sq. in. 

Are—(100 sq. m.) —119.6 sq. yards. 

Hectare (10.000 sq. m.)—2.471 acres. 



Comparative 

Table of 

Weights. 

Lbs. 

Kgs. 

Lbs. 

Kgs. 

1 

.452 

100 

45-25 

2 

.905 

200 

90.50 

3 

1 *3 57 

300 

135-75 

4 

1.809 

400 

181.00 

5 

2.262 

500 

226.25 

10 

4-525 

1000 

452.50 

15 

6.787 

2000 

905.00 

20 

9.050 

3000 

1357-50 

25 

11.31 

4000 

1810.00 

50 

22.62 

5000 

2262.50 


A . B. C. of Motoring 249 


Kgs. 

Lbs. 

Kgs. 

Lbs. 

1 

2.204 

25 

55 -H 5 

2 

4.409 

50 

110.230 

3 

6.614 

100 

220.460 

4 

8.818 

500 

1102.300 

5 

11.023 

1000 

2204.600 

10 

23.046 

2000 

4409.200 


Comparative Table of Lengths. 


Feet 

Meters 

Feet 

Meters 

1-12 

2.54cm. 

5 

1.524 

1-2 

15.24cm. 

10 

3-048 

1 

30.48cm. 

25 

7.62 

2 

60.96cm. 

50 

15.24 

3 

91.44cm. 

100 

30.48 

4 

1.2192M. 

1000 

304.80 

Meters 

Feet 

Meters 

Feet 

z 

3.280 

10 

32.808 

2 

6.561 

25 

82.020 

3 

9.842 

50 

164.040 

4 

13-123 

100 

328.080 

5 

16.404 

1000 

3280.8693 

Miles 

Km. 

Miles. 

Km. 

1 

1.609 

25 

40.225 

2 

3.218 

50 

80.450 

3 

4.827 

100 

160.900 

4 

6.436 

500 

804.500 

5 

8.045 

1000 

i609.000 

10 

16.090 

2000 

3218.000 

Km. 

Miles 

Km. 

Miles. 

1 

0.621 

25 

15-525 

2 

1.242 

50 

31.050 

3 

1.863 

100 

62.100 

4 

2.484 

500 

310.500 

5 

3.105 

1000 

621.000 

10 

6.210 

2000 

1242.000 

Comparative Table 

of Liquid Measrues. 

Gal. 

Liters. 

Gal. 

Liters. 

1 

37853 

4 

151412 

2 

7.5706 

5 

18.9265 

3 

11*3559 

10 

37 - 853 I 


250 A. B. C. of Motoring 


Liters 

Gal. 

Liters 

Gal. 

1 

0.2641 

4 

1.0567 

2 

0.5283 

5 

1.3208 

3 

0.7925 

10 

2.64117 

Comparative Table of Surface 

Measures 

Sq. Fit. 

Sq. M. 

Sq. Ft. 

Sq. M. 

1 

.0929 

4 

.3716 

2 

.1858 

5 

.4645 

3 

.2782 

10 

.9290 

Sq. M. 

Sq. Ft. 

Sq. M. 

Sq. Ft. 

1 

10.764 

4 

42.056 

2 

21.528 

5 

53.820 

3 

32.292 

10 

107.641 


Comparative 

Table of Cubic 

Measures 

Cu. Ft. 

Cu. M. 

Cu. Ft. 

Cu. M. 

2 

.02831 

5 

.14158 

2 

.05663 

10 

.28316 

3 

.08494 

50 

1.41580 

4 

.11326 

100 

2.83161 

Cu. M. 

Cu. Ft. 

Cu. M. 

Cu. Ft. 

1 

35 - 3 i 

5 

176.57 

2 

70.63 

10 

353-15 

3 

105.94 

50 

1765.70 

4 

141.26 

lOO 

3531-50 


A. B. C. of Motoring 251 


FOREIGN CURRENCY VALUES 
(Approximate) 


Country 

Standard 

Unit U. 

S. Value 

Argentine 

Gold 

Peso 

$0,965 

Austria-Hungary 

Gold 

Krone 

.203 

Belgium 

Gold 

Franc 

.193 

Bolivia 

Silver 

Boliviano 

•384 

Brazil 

Gold 

Milreis 


Brit. Colonies in 

N. Amer. exc. N. F. 

Gold 

Dollar 

1.000 

Centr. Amer. States. 

Costa Rica. 

Gold 

Colon 

.465 

Guatemala 

Silver 

Peso 

•384 

Honduras. 

Gold 

Dollar 

1.000 

Honduras, Brit. 

Silver 

Peso 

•384 

Nicaragua 

Silver 

Peso 

•384 

Salvador 

Silver 

Peso 

•384 

Chile 

Gold 

Peso 

. 36 *; 

China 

Amoy 

Silver 

Tael 

.622 

Canton 

Silver 

Tael 

.620 

Chefoo 

Silver 

Tael 

•595 

Chin Kiang 

Silver 

Tael 

.607 

Fuchau 

Silver 

Tael 

•575 

Haikvvan 

Silver 

Tael 

•633 

Hankow (Customs) 

Silver 

Tael 

.582 

Niuchwang (Customs) 

Silver 

Tael 

.583 

Ningpo (Customs) 

Silver 

Tael 

•598 

Shanghai (Customs) 

Silver 

Tael 

.568 

Swatow (Customs) 

Silver 

Tael 

•575 

Takau (Customs) 

Silver 

Tael 

.62 6 

Tientsin (Customs) 

Silver 

Tael 

.603 

Columbia 

Silver 

Peso 

•384 

Cuba 

Gold 

Peso 

•384 

Denmark 

Gold 

Kroner 

.268 

Ecuador 

Gold 

Sucre 

•487 

Egypt 

Gold 

Pound 

4-943 

Finland 

Gold 

Mark 

•193 

France 

Gold 

Franc 

.193 

Germany 

Gold 

Mark 

.238 

Great Britain 

Gold 

Pound Stlg. 

4.866 

Greece 

Gold 

Drachma 

•193 

Haiti 

Gold 

Gourde 

.965 

Holland 

Gold 

Florin 

.402 



252 A. B. C. of Motoring 


Country 

Standard 

Unit U. 

S. Value 

India 

Gold 

Pound Stlg. 

4.866 

Italy 

Gold 

Lira 

.193 

Japan 

Gold 

Yen 

.498 

Liberia 

Gold 

Dollar 

1.OOO 

Mexico 

Silver 

Dollar 

.418 

N. Foundland 

Gold 

Denar' 

T 

1.014 

Norway 

Gold 

Kroner 

T 

.268 

Persia 

Silver 

Kran 

.071 

Peru 

Gold 

Sol 

/ 

.487 

Portugal 

Gold 

Milreis 

T / 

1.080 

Russia 

Gold 

Ruble 

. c 1 c 

Spain 

Gold 

Peseta 

J D 

.IQ 7 

Sweden 

Gold 

Kroner 

/ J 

.268 

Switzerland 

Gold 

Franc 

•193 

.044 

z.034 

•093 

Turkey 

Uruguay 

Gold 

Gold 

Piaster 

Peso 

Venezuela 

Gold 

Bolivar 


K R AIJ S Z S 


COMPLETE 


AUTOMOBILE 

RECORD 


00 

Expense Account for fifty-two weeks , with col¬ 
umns for Cost of Gasoline, Carbide, Kerosene, 
Repairs, Replacements, Daily Runs, Chauffeur's 
Salary, Garage Expenses, Speed Record, Starting 
Point, Destination, Motoring Laws of Thirty-five 
States, and names of others having no laws* 


Totals of Expenses and Runs for any Period 
SHOWN AT A GLANCE 


BINDING, ALBUM-SHAPED 


Special cloth,.$0.50 

Leather, .1.00 


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Webster’s New Standard 
DICTIONARIES 

Awarded Gold Medal and Diploma, World’s Exposition, St. Louis, 1904 ; 
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